Debut Albums and Young Man free essay sample

A more established man of his word was playing a series of golf. Out of nowhere his ball cut and arrived in a shallow lake. As he was endeavoring to recover the ball he found a frog who, to his extraordinary shock, began to talk! Kiss me, and I will change into a lovely princess, and I will be yours for seven days. He got the frog and put it in his pocket. As he kept on playing golf, the frog rehashed its message. Kiss me, and I will change Into a wonderful princess, and I will be yours for an entire month! The man kept on playing his golf match-up and indeed the frog stood up. KISS me,and I will change into an excellent princess, and I will be yours for an entire year! At last, the elderly person went to the frog and shouted, At my age, Id rather have a talking frog! The Last Ticket During a bustling occasion end of the week, a lady who was eight months pregnant went to the railroad station to get back to her significant other. At the booking counter, when her turn came, there was just one ticket left.Taking pity on an exceptionally old woman behind her in line, she offered her billet to the old woman and sent a wire to her significant other which showed up with a little blunder: Shall be coming tomorrow, overwhelming surge in the train, eave birth to an old woman. A Business Loan A representative strolled Into a bank in San Francisco and requested the advance official. He told the official that he Is going to Europe on business for about fourteen days and expected to obtain $5,000. The bank official clarified that the bank required a security for such an advance. So the agent gave over the keys also Rolls Royce stopped in the city before the bank. Everything looked at, and the bank consented to acknowledge the vehicle as insurance for the credit. A bank worker drove the Rolls into the banks underground carport and stopped it there. After fourteen days, the specialist returned, reimbursed the $5,000 with Interest, which came to $15. 41. The credit official stated, We are exceptionally glad to have had your business, and this exchange has turned out to be pleasantly, however we are somewhat baffled. While you were away, we looked at you and found that you are a multimillionaire. What puzzles us is the reason would you trouble to get $5,000? The representative answered, Where else in San Francisco would i be able to leave my vehicle for about fourteen days for just 15 bucks? A Big Decision A six-year-old kid approached his dad one day and reported, Daddy, Id like to get hitched. His dad answered reluctantly, Sure, child, do you have anybody extraordinary as a main priority? Truly, addressed the kid. l need to wed Grandma. Presently, hold up a moment, said his dad. You dont think Id let you get hitched with my mom, isn't that right? Why not? The kid inquired. You wedded mine. 100 Penguins A truck driver was driving 100 penguins to the New York Zoo when his truck stalled on the freeway.The driver escaped the taxi and was taking a gander at the motor when a second truck driver halted before him and inquired as to whether he required any assistance. On the off chance that the other man would take the penguins there. He concurred. A few hours after the fact, the second truck driver drove past the first, who was all the while looking out for the expressway for help to come. The penguins, in any case, were still on the truck! l thought I requested that you take those penguins to the zoo, yelled the main driver. The second answered, l did, yet I had some cash left, so were heading off to the film now. General store Encounter A youngster was strolling through a market to get a couple of things when he saw an old woman chasing after him. Barely caring about it, he overlooked her and progressed forward. At last, he went to the checkout line, yet she got before him. Excuse me, she stated, Im sorry if my gazing at you has caused you to feel awkward. Its Just that you look Just like my child who Just kicked the bucket as of late. Im extremely heartbroken, answered the youngster, Is there anything I can accomplish for you? Indeed, she said. As Im leaving, would you be able to bid farewell mother? It would cause me to feel vastly improved. Without a doubt, addressed the youngster. As the elderly person was leaving, he got out, Goodbye mother! As he ventured up to the checkout counter, he saw that his absolute was $127. 50. In what capacity would that be able to be? he asked, l just bought a couple of things! Your mom said that you would pay for ere, said the agent. Do you have the right to enter paradise? A man passed on and went to paradise. A holy messenger met him at the Gates of Heaven and stated, Before you meet with God, I figured I should let you know weve analyzed as long as you can remember, and you truly didnt do anything especially positive or negative. Were uncertain about whether we can concede you into paradise or not.Can you reveal to us anything remarkable you did that can assist us with settling on a choice? The recently shown up soul thought for a second and answered, Yeah, when I was driving along and happened upon a lady who was being pestered by a gathering of goons. So I pulled over, got out my tire iron, and . NET up to the pioneer of the posse. He was a major, solid, bushy person with tattoos all over his body and a ring penetrated through his nose. All things considered, I detached the nose ring from his nose, and revealed to him that he and his pack would be wise to quit disturbing the lady or they would need to manage me! Im dazzled, The holy messenger reacted, When did this occur? The man answered, About two minutes prior. Return my pony! A cowpoke rode into town and halted at a cantina for a beverage. Shockingly, local people consistently had a propensity for singling out outsiders. At the point when he completed his beverage, he discovered his pony had been taken. He returned into the bar, helpfully flipped his weapon into the air, got it over his head without looking and discharged a shot into the roof. Which one of you sidewinders took my horse?!?!? he shouted with astonishing forcefulness. Nobody replied. Okay, Im goanna have another brew, and if my pony hostile to back outside when I finish, Im goanna do what I did in Texas! Furthermore, I dont like to need to do what I did in Texas! A portion of local people moved fretfully. The man, consistent with his promise, had another brew, strolled outside, and his pony had been come back to the post. He outfitted up and began to brave of town. The barkeep meandered out of the bar and asked, Say accomplice, before you go.. . What occurred in Texas? The cowpoke turned around and stated, l needed to walk home. Science Class water? Senseless Suzie promptly lifted her hand. Indeed, Suzie, whats the appropriate response? , the instructor inquired. Suzie addressed gladly, The compound equation for water is HICKMAN! Her educator looked confused. He asked, What are you discussing? Suzie answered, Yesterday you said the recipe for water is H to O! Improve Your Memory! Two older couples were getting a charge out of agreeable discussion when one of the men asked he other, Fred, how was the memory center you went to a month ago? Extraordinary, Fred answered. They showed all of us the most recent mental methods representation, affiliation it has had a major effect for me. That is extraordinary! What was the name of that center? Fred went clear. He thought and thought yet couldnt recall. At that point a grin broke over his face and he asked, What do you call that bloom with the long stem and thistles? You mean a rose? Indeed, that is it! At that point he went to his better half and solicited, Rose, what was the name of that center? Only One Copy A youthful official was leaving the workplace at pm when he found the CEO (Chief Executive Officer) remaining before a shredder with a bit of paper in his grasp. Tune in, said the CEO, this is significant, and my secretary has left.Can you make this thing work? Surely, said the youthful official. He turned the machine on, embedded the paper, and squeezed the beginning catch. Astounding, magnificent! said the CEO as his paper vanished inside the shredder. l simply need one duplicate. Superb Golf Moses, Jesus, and a more established hairy man were playing a series of golf. Moses ventured up to the tee and hit the ball. It made a beeline for the water. Rapidly, Moses raised his club and the water separated, permitting the ball to move to the opposite side onto the fairway. Next, Jesus came up and hit his ball toward a similar water hole.This time it floated for a couple of moments over the water. Calmly, Jesus strolled over to it and chipped it up onto the green. The more established man at that point teed up and whacked the ball which made a beeline for a close by parkway. It bobbed off the highest point of a truck and moved down the canal of a close by house, at that point landed securely on a lily cushion in a little lake where an enormous bullfrog gulped it. At that point a huge falcon dove down and got the frog. As hello disregarded the fairway, the frog burped and the ball dropped out of his mouth and into the gap for a delightful gap in one.Moses went to Jesus and stated, I despise playing with your father. The Butcher and the Lawyer An attorneys hound, running about released, beelines for a butcher shop and takes a meal. The butcher goes to the legal counselors office and asks, If a pooch running released takes a bit of meat from my store, do I reserve a privilege to request installment for the meat from the mutts proprietor? The legal advisor answers, Absolutely. At that point you owe me $12. 50. Your canine was free and took a meal from me today. The legal counselor, without a bar, composes the butcher a check for $12. 50.A hardly any days after the fact the butcher gets a letter from the legal counselor: $45 due for interview. Silver Hairs One day, a young lady was sitting and watching her mom do the dishes at the kitchen sink. She out of nowhere saw that her mom had a few strands of white hair standing out rather than her brunette hair. She saw her mom and curiously asked, you accomplish something incorrectly and make me cry or troubled, one of my hairs turns white. The young lady pondered this disclosure for some time and afterward solicited, Mom, why all of grandmothers hairs are white? Three Rooms in Hell A man bites the dust and goes to Hell. The Devil meets him at the entryways and says There are three rooms here. You can pick which one you need to spend time everlasting in. The Devil takes him to the primary room where there are individuals dangling from the dividers by their wrists and clearly in distress. The De

Themes in Mario Puzos The Godfather free essay sample

This paper is an examination of the various subjects set forward in Mario Puzos epic, 'The Godfather.' This paper looks at the auxiliary plan of the book, 'The Godfather,' by Mario Puzo. The writer subtleties how the story structure of the novel prompts a large number of the troubles that perusers of the novel will confront. A portion of the issues remember challenges for how the creator of the novel can make his crowd to some degree understanding and thoughtful to the character of Michael Corleone and the brutality that is related with the wrongdoing family. The subject of good clash and internal disturbance is found all through the novel and not at all like different books about the Mafia it is told exclusively from the point of view of the lawbreakers, from within, not from the outside glancing in. The writer feels that the way where this material is introduced powers singular perusers to think about the inquiries and upsetting good issues raised by this novel. We will compose a custom article test on Topics in Mario Puzos The Godfather or then again any comparative point explicitly for you Don't WasteYour Time Recruit WRITER Just 13.90/page 'The principal moral quandary is the difficulty that outlines the account or the plot of the book. Wear Corleone came to America to proceed with the family 'exchange' of wrongdoing but to turn into an American example of overcoming adversity in a real manner. Notwithstanding, he can't, after the war between the distinctive Mafia wrongdoing groups takes his designated replacement Sonny, to empower his child Michael to lead the real life the Don wished him to. The Don wished to win social just as financial authenticity for his family in America. He wished to life the American dream, in spite of the fact that the fantasy started on badly gotten gains. He wished to wash his blood cash clean.'

The Evolution of Industrialization, from the Putting Out System to the Essay

The Evolution of Industrialization, from the Putting Out System to the Factory System - Essay Example Through this technique for working, the proprietor of the business would relegate a specific contractual worker and make him boss. Subsequent to employing the central contractual worker, the new temporary worker would thusly concentrate on the gathering and choose a few other junior contractual workers each with a specific undertaking that they would later on consolidate to see to the finish of the venture (Meyer, 2012). Through this strategy, the lesser contractual workers and their colleagues were allowed to hold their gatherings anyplace regardless of whether it implied leaving the site. This is the reason this framework was alluded to as â€Å"putting out† in light of the fact that the rich businesses would simply putting out wares to the laborers who worked in their homes and these would putting out to other junior specialists. Through this framework, the client had an enormous task to carry out as the main contractual worker would not begin work without guaranteeing that he had all that he required from the client. It was the customer’s obligation to buy a portion of the significant stuff for the temporary worker to draw in his men and think of an alluring item. The putting out framework was exceptionally powerful during the start of the modern insurgency. Through this putting out framework, British officers got their guns by reaching different temporary workers in the London territory. These temporary workers would subsequently look for individuals that new inner regions in the city where they would get guns. Through this, each individual in the chain got some commission. Notwithstanding, there are cases that the contractual workers sent indicated covetousness and could even endeavor getting away with the cash. The officers were splendid and they would in the end make up for lost time to them. The bungalow business is another that won adequately during this period. This was a less confounded area of the business in that the clients knew the specific living arrangement of the spinners. With this data, they would go, leave subtleties and afterward visit following half a month or days relying upon the

Community Drainage System - 1100 Words

Community Drainage System (Coursework Sample) Content: Community Drainage System Strategic Plan West Coast University Ruth Joseph Dr. Mart Kessack July 31st, 2016 Introduction Community water drainage system is a serious infrastructure issue that can cause a health hazard. A drainage system is made up of the natural water ways like streams, Man-made water ways like ditches and trenches, natural and artificial water-holding centers and the sewer system (Canadian Standards Association, 2015). These systems ensure water runs down stream into the right places to avoid stagnation that would otherwise be a health issue. Drainage as a health issue arises from the stagnation of water due to disruption of their paths and break down of the sewer system (Canadian Standards Association, 2015). The community is supposed to protect the systems from disruptions like constructions, farming and lack of maintenance. According to Craun et al. (2015), from 1920 to 2002, America has reported 1, 870 outbreaks of water-borne diseases. Waterborne diseases were the reason for 207 outbreaks were reported and 433, 947 illnesses. Craun et al. (2015) breaks down where the illnesses we re reported as in non-community water systems, community water systems, and individual systems. In these three categories, non-community water systems report the highest number of illnesses at 42% followed by community systems at 36% and finally individual systems at 22% (Craun et al., 2015). These cases led to thousands of illnesses reported. The trend has however been decreasing with time. The following graph still shows some community systems and the increasing rate of outbreaks resulting from community drainage systems. Community drainage systems are managed by collective responsibility, the government, and local authority. Main infrastructure features like streams and sewage system are managed by the government. Trenches and ditches are mostly a collective responsibility of the community or local authorities like city council if they pose danger to health. Trenches and ditches in farms and personal property are managed by individuals. Communities do not have the special machinery required to open swamps and maintain Trenches. They also lack funds to pay experts who can be involved in redesigning a drainage system in case of a problem. The lack of authority, funds and machines amputates the communityà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢s ability to solve drainage issues in their environment. Legislation managing waterways and drainage system also lacks and therefore makes it hard to control human activities that disrupt a drainage system. The drainage system is also part of the measures to manage natural disasters lik e storms and if not included in that package cannot be controlled (Canadian Standards Association, 2015). The table above showed an increase in cases related to water-borne disease outbreaks. This is because the community drainage systems are increasing as more trenches and underground ditches are built to pass waste water. This is in response to increase in populations, homes, apartments and industries that must be served by the community drainage system. Strategic Plan Goal 1: The Community should be aware of health hazards associated with Drainage The community must be first made aware of the risks poor drainage is causing to health. They have to understand the relationship between water-borne diseases and stagnant water. * Carry out a public awareness campaign on the community and televisions. * Use survey engineers to educate people on the community drainage patterns and necessary action in case of a disruption. Goal 2: Legislation or community policy prohibiting human activity on drainage reserve land Land covered by sewage storage tanks, sewer lines, streams, trenches, swamps, etc. is land covered by the drainage system. To control disruption of this drainage, the land should be placed under public land legislation or community land. * Land covered by drainage system should be protected from misuse by law. * Punishment should be stipulated by law, on offenders that disrupt drainage system by building houses, putting farms on them, etc. Goal 3: Programs to maintain the sewer and drainage system Drainage system breaks down due to poor maintenance. Often the system in maintained after a public outcry, health hazard or streams have been blocked permanently for some time. At this time the damage is already done. A community should have a defined and written program of how the system will be maintained. * The county council or town council or even central government should have a written and signed program governing how drainage systems will be maintained. It can st...

Implications Of The Debt Crisis Essay Online For Free - Free Essay Example

Sample details Pages: 14 Words: 4090 Downloads: 6 Date added: 2017/06/26 Category Finance Essay Type Research paper Did you like this example? The recent global crisis had multiple causes: The general cause appears to be a rapid growth of the level of debt (especially in the case of households), accompanied by sharp increases in real estate prices. However, the complexity of the crisis was increased by the existance of individual reasons in each country. The article aims to synthesize some of the most important reasons that led to the current crisis both general and country-specific (USA, Iceland, Ireland, Greece, Portugal, Spain). Don’t waste time! Our writers will create an original "Implications Of The Debt Crisis Essay Online For Free" essay for you Create order Last but not least, the article analyses some of the implications of the crisis for the markets and for the regulators. Introduction The financial crisis that hit the global economy in 2007 and is still continuing in 2011 has been the largest such crisis in the post-world war period. Its implications have been so numerous and some of them so radical that understanding this crisis has become a necessity for all of us. Having started as a liquidity crisis, it developed to the extent that it generated a recession in many countries, and it has had implications not only on the banking system, but also on the real economy and on the economic dynamics. The current article aims to make a synthesis of current research on this topic with regard to the multiple causes of the recent crisis (in the USA and in Europe) and to its implications. Causes of the crisis Despite the unprecedented global reach of the recent crisis, the European Commission (2009) believes some of its causes are similar to causes of previous crises, such as the Asian crisis in late 1990s or the crisis of the Nordic countries in the early 1990s. The common feature was that all these crises were preceded by long periods of rapid credit growth, low risk premiums, abundant availability of liquidity, strong leveraging, soaring asset prices and the development of bubbles in the real estate sector. Indeed, McKinsey (2010) made a quantitative and qualitative analysis of the evolution of debt levels during the pre-crisis period in several countries in the world, which revealed that after 2000 debt grew significantly in most mature economies, enabled by the globalization of banking and a period of unusually low interest rates and risk spreads. The borrowing increased substantially in the case of households, especially through home mortgages. The household debt level increased s ignificantly relatively to the household disposable income, which was ignored because the ratio of debt to assets appeared stable before the crisis due to the rising house prices. The level of debt was less worrying at the start of the crisis with regard to the business sectors, with the exception of the commercial real estate sector and some banks. Coming back to the level of debt, the McKinsey (2010) piece of research also quantified the structure of debt for a selection of 10 developed countries and 4 emerging countries in 2008. These results are summarized in the chart below, which shows what percentage of the debt of each country was issued by government, financial institutions or non-financial institutions, and what percentage of a countrys total debt is represented by household debt. All the numbers represent a percentage of the countrys GDP. Figure 1: The structure of debt for several countries as of 2008, as % of GDP. (Source: McKinsey (2010) report). These numbers have also been used by the Economist (2010a), which took the previous study further by analysing the dynamic of the increase of the government debt in analysed countries. Thus, in the 10 developed countries, the total debt increased from 200% of GDP in 1995 up to 300% of GDP in 2008. Some countries displayed even higher increases in the ratio between debt and GDP, such as 1200% for Iceland and 900% for Ireland. In the case of the latter two countries, the debt level proved unsustainable and pushed them into crisis in 2010. The chart shows that the countries for which the ratio between debt and GDP reached the highest level are the peripheral countries of the Eurozone (Greece, Portugal, Italy), but also USA, Japan, Canada and othes. The countries with the lowest ratio of debt to GDP in the sample were Russia, India and China, which also happenned to have a spectacular recovery recently following the crisis. At a more specific level, each of the countries hit by the recent financi al crisis had individual causes which influenced the development of the crisis both in specific countries and overall, since in some situations a strong contagion effect of the crisis could be noticed. With regard to the specific contry reasons detailed below, several economic indicators may be mentioned. The charts below detail the evolution of these economic indicators for the countries included and for the period 1995 2011. All data is available from the IMF and it is updated as of October 2010: Figure 2: GDP % change for a selection of countries, 1995 2011. (Source: IMF Database). The numbers represent the percentages of year-on-year changes for the constant price GDP. The numbers for 2010 and 2011 are IMF estimates, updated as of October 2010. Figure 3: Current account balance for a selection of countries, 1995 2011. (Source: IMF Database). The current account includes all transactions other than those in financial and capital items. The major classifications are go ods and services, income and current transfers. The focus of the balance pf payments is on transactions (between an economy and the rest of the world) in goods, services, and income. The numbers for 2010 and 2011 are IMF estimates, updated as of October 2010. Figure 4: General government gross debt as a % of GDP for a selection of countries, 1995 2011. (Source: IMF Database). Gross debt consists of all liabilities that require payment or payments of interest and/or principal by the debtor to the creditor at a date or dates in the future. This includes debt liabilities in the form of SDRs, currency and deposits, debt securities, loans, insurance, pensions and standardized guarantee schemes, and other accounts payable. The numbers for 2010 and 2011 are IMF estimates, updated as of October 2010. Figure 5: Evolution of the unemployment rate for a selection of countries, 1995 2011. (Source: IMF Database). The numbers for 2010 and 2011 are IMF estimates, updated as of October 2010 . The USA was the first country to be hit by the crisis, and this was due to a series of issues. Firstly, the large mortgage debts, which were mentioned above. Secondly, some large financial institutions in the USA were confronted with a gradual decline in the quality of capital, as they had asset growth with increasing amounts of hybrid capital instruments, such as certain forms of preferred stock (McKinsey (2010)). Such capital instruments were unable to compensate for credit losses during the crisis, which brought a degree of vulnerability for those financial institutions in front of the crisis. Thirdly, instead of keeping loans on their own balance sheets, the banks moved towards the originate and distribute model, which led to a decline in lending standards (Brunnermeier (2009)). The banks used to create diversified portfolios of credit instruments (mortgages, corporate bonds, credit card receivables etc), then slice these portfolios into a number of tranches and sell these slices to various categories of investors. Each slice used to receive a credit rating from rating agencies and as a result, the slices were ranging from the superior senior tranche (the safest tranche, AAA credit rating, the first in line to be paid out of the cash flows of the portfolios, but with the lowest interest rate) to the equity tranche (the most junior tranche, lowest credit rating among the tranches, the last in line to be paid out of the cash flows of the portfolios, but with the highest interest rate). The low lending standards generated by such actions from the banks, combined with the cheap credit available at that time resulted in the housing frenzy that laid the foundations for the crisis. Icelands specific reason behind the financial crisis was, according to The Economist (2008), the fact that it had built a financial house of cards. Iceland represents an extreme case of a huge financial system towering over a small economy. Behind the encouraging image of low u nemployment, income per person above the average in the European Union, huge investments in green energy and inflows of foreign investment, the countrys 3 largest banks and its households built huge amounts of debt. The credit crisis was enough to make Icelands banking system, its credit rating and its currency all collapse at the same time. As a result, Icelands GDP fell by 15% from its top point to the bottom reached during the crisis. Ireland also proved to be different with regard to the way in which it was hit by the crisis. Morgan Kelly, an economist at University College Dublin, cited by The Economist (2011a), said that What happened in Ireland was very boring. There were no complex derivatives or shadow banking systems. This was a good old 19th-century, or even 17th-century, banking collapse. It appears that Irelands only reason to become hardly hit by the crisis was that during the previous decade, Ireland had turned into a nation of property developers. Ireland enjoyed average annual GDP growth of almost 10% between 1993 and 2000, which continued even afterwards, fueled by the low interest rates environment and excessive lending. Irelands fall started when property prices started falling in 2006 2007, and it continued with the crash of shares in Irish banks, the transformation of the banking crisis into a sovereign-debt crisis, the big rise in its borrowing costs and it culminated with Irelands acceptance of a bail-out from the EU and the IMF in November 2010 (the second such situation for a EU country). The rescue package received was EUR 85bn, out of which EUR 35 bn is aimed at recapitalising the Irish banking system. The cost of recapitalising the Irish banks has indeed proved to be significant. According to Deutsche Bank (2011), if the EUR 35bn amount previously mentioned would be fully used for this purpose, the estimated total cost of recapitalisation of Irish banks would reach 52% of Irelands 2009 GDP. Greece was the first EU country to receive a bail-out from the EU and the IMF in May 2010, worth EUR 110bn. Some of its greatest issues have been its high level of public debt and its high budget deficits. As The Economist (2010c) noticed, in 2001 when joining the euro, Greece already had a public debt in excess of 100% of GDP. Adoption of the euro currency allowed more favourable terms for the refinancing of government debt, and the strong GDP growth masked the weakness of Greeces public finances. Greeces government debt reached 115% of GDP in 2009 and its current account deficit reached 14.6% of GDP in 2008. Greece had leant too heavily on consumer spending and relied on foreign capital to supplement its low savings (The Economist (2010c)).Nelson et al (2010) went into further detail and listed additional reasons behind the Greek crisis: high government spending, weak revenue collection, weak enforcement of EU rules regarding debt, and others. In addition to these facts, Greece also faced certain restrictions, suc h as: impossibility to devalue the currency due to the membership into the eurozone, and the lack of competitiveness of its economy partly due to overhiring and overpayment in the public sector (The Economist (2010d)). Last but not least, Nelson et al (2010) noticed that complex financial instruments may have played a role in helping Greece accumulate and conceal its debt. One implication of the Greek crisis was the contagion effect to other European countries. Even if these countries only shared few of Greeces issues, investors still have become more prudent with respect to Portugal (which also has a high budget deficit), Spain (in need to restructure its economy) and Italy (heavily indebted). Portugal increasingly started to be seen as a potential victim of the sovereign debt crisis following Greeces crisis. Portugals weaknesses have been a large public debt and a high budget deficit, but its situation has been slightly different from that of Greece. Portugal enjoyed rapid econ omic growth before joining the euro in 1999, but afterwards it has been impacted by a steady loss of competitiveness in wages. The 1990s have been a lost decade for the economy and as a result, it became difficult to manage the countrys public finances (The Economist (2010c)). Moreover, the further expansion of the European Union towards Eastern Europe in 2004 has diverted part of the foreign direct investment away from Portugal towards the new members. Investors expect April and June 2011 to be an important test for Portugal, as Portugal will need to refinance EUR 9.5bn of public debt then. The yield of 6.7% paid by Portugal for the ten year bonds sold in January 2011 is very close to 7%, which some Portughese officials have declared that is not a sustainable level (FT, 7th Jan 2011). Spain also started to be seen as a potential victim of the sovereign debt crisis following Greeces crisis, even if Spains public debt level (at less than two thirds of its GDP) is not large relativ ely to the other countries. However, Spains problems lay with its local banks (cajas) and its housing bust. According to The Economist (2010b), Spanish banks have outstanding loans of EUR323bn to property developers (equivalent of 31% of GDP); and they already had provisions of EUR87bn for bad loans by the end of 2010. Deutsche Bank (2011) explains that in addition to this exposure of the banking system to the constructions sector, Spain is also negatively impacted by the highest level of unemployment among the major developed countries. In this respect, Spain is similar to Ireland. Deutsche Bank (2011) also highlights the major differences between the Irish and Spanish banking systems: the better condition of the two largest and internationally diversified Spanish banks (vs the major Irish banks), the heavier reliance of the Irish banks on inter-bank sources of funding, the stronger banks overall capital adequacy before the intensification of the crisis in Spain vs Ireland. Implications of the crisis for Europe The implications of a crisis can be numerous and they can refer to the financial sector, the real economy, regulations etc. As Cogman Dobbs (2008) pointed out, the impact of previous crises on the real economy has not always been the same. The direction of the impact was due to the actions pursued by governments for recapitalizing banks, introducing stimulus measures and restoring investors confidence in the economy. According to Reinhart Rogoff (2008), countries usually need two years in order to start recovering from past recessions after major banking crisis. However, there were several situations when a much longer period was needed for starting the recovery: Japan needed almost a decade (the lost decade) following the crisis in the 1990s; the USA also needed a longer time to start recovering after the Great Depression in 1929 1933, when 28% of GDP was lost. Cogman Dobbs (2008) suggest that one important aspect to assess is the impact that financial crises have on the availability of credit in relation to this, the impact of a potential shortage of credit has on the real economy and on consumer confidence has to be assessed. With regard to the availability of credit, the McKinsey (2010) report proved that 44 out of the 45 crises identified between 1929 2010 were followed by periods of deleveraging, where they defined deleveraging episodes as periods in which the ratio between total debt and GDP declined for at least 3 consecutive quarters and the total fall was at least 10%. Along these results, the report would expect that a series of sectors in some countries would deleverage in the near future (UK, USA, Spain, Canada and South Korea). The report also concluded that deleveraging episodes usually last 6-7 years and their initial years may also witness a recession. On a different note, it is interesting to mention that Lund Ruxburgh (2009) have tried to assess how the fortunes of the power brokers have changed following the recent crisi s (McKinsey Global Institute defined in 2007 the power brokers to be four large groups of investors which seemed to have an edge over others: oil exporters, Asian sovereign investors, hedge funds and private equity firms). Their conclusion was that in almost any scenario (depending on the future development of the crisis) the previously defined power brokers would remain significant players in the global capital markets. The big winners are the oil exporters and Asian sovereign investors, as the source of their wealth will persist: trade surpluses. As noticed by the authors, the rapid growth of hedge funds and private equity firms has stopped abruptly, but they are still expected to recover in the future. With regard to Europe, the implications have also been very diverse and of a very diverse nature: the decoupling of the core European countries from the peripheral ones, the creation of the European Financial Stability Facility (EFSF), debates on the topic of European integratio n, debates on complex derivatives and their regulation, implications for the government debt issuance, and others. As mentioned above, one important aspect of the crisis is that it has not impacted all European countries uniformly. In fact there is a big divergence between the core countries (Germany, France) and the crisis-hit peripheral countries (Greece, Ireland, Portugal and Spain): while the core countries have been enjoying an economic recovery since 2010, the peripheral countries are still struggling with recession. Being part of the same monetary union (ie the eurozone), they are goverened by the same monetary policy. While all eurozone countries were at the height of a financial and economic crisis, there was no debate regarding the apropriateness of the monetary policy. However, following the recent divergence, such debates have increased, showing a difficult task ahead of the European Central Bank regarding the rising of the interest rate for the euro. The four main pe ripheral countries mentioned above do represent a significant 18% of euro area GDP. However, Germany and France together represent 50% of euro area GDP. (Deutsche Bank (2011)) One of the consequences of the financial crisis in Europe was the creation of the European Financial Stability Facility (EFSF) in June 2010 by the 16 euro area member states. The EFSF has been fully operational since August 2010 and its purpose is to finance loans for euro area member states which are experiencing difficulty in obtaining financing at sustainable rates (EFSF (2011)). EFSF will be able to borrow up to EUR 440 bn by issuing bonds guaranteed by the euro area member states, and it has received the best possible credit rating (AAA) from all three credit rating agencies (Fitch, Moodys and Standard Poors). The money borrowed through such bonds will then be lent to struggling euro zone countries. EFSF issued its first bond on the 24th of January 2011 and met spectacular demand on this occasion, bankers not being able to recall such a large order book for any bond, government or corporate (EUR 40bn in orders vs EUR 5bn notional sold) (FT (2011b)). This first bond has been seen as a landmark deal and some investors said it could be a precursor to the first common eurozone bond. The European Commission also agreed on the creation of a permanent crisis mechanism: the European Stability Mechanism (ESM). ESM will become operational in 2013 when the EFSF expires and it will build on the existing EFSF. The aim of ESM will be to support countries of the euro zone which may find themselves in financial distress. ESM loans will enjoy preferred creditor status and they will be junior only to IMF loans (EFSF (2011)). The recent crisis also brought changes in the government debt issuance practices in the 16 euro zone countries. Before the crisis, these practices had converged to a common standard which involved placement of long-term, fixed rate debt denominated in national curren cy via competitive auctions. De Broeck Guscina (2010) have proved that after mid-2008 this standard could not be followed anymore, because of the increase in sovereign funding needs and the fall in investor risk appetite, which made risk premia rise. They performed a research on a sample of 3,000 debt issuances by governments in the euro zone and Denmark in 2007 2009, which was divided into a pre-crisis period (mid-2007 to mid-2008) and a crisis period (mid-2008 Dec 2009). The main findings of the research were that the new standard for issuing government debt in the countries studied was defined by shorter maturities (because such debt is less risky for the investor), foreign currency denomination (because such debt shifts currency risk exposure from the investor to the debtor), and/or floating rates (because such debt transfers the risks related to changes in global interest rates and in the countrys perceived creditworthiness from the investor to the debtor). Therefore, the im pact of the crisis was that it has forced governments to assume additional risk. This negative effect was especially pronounced in countries with high deficit and high debt. De Broeck Guscina (2010) concluded that the mentioned change in the standard for government debt issuance allowed governments to deal with the reduced risk appetite of investors and to limit the impact of high deficits and debt on interest payments, but at the same time exposed them to significantly higher risks of refinancing and repricing, and sometimes to exchange rate risk as well. One other implication of the crisis was that the use of complex financial instruments has been more and more questioned, and so were the financial regulations that are concerned with them. Nelson et al (2010) remind that during the crisis, the Greek governments used derivatives to conceal the true level of Greeces debt. For example they traded currency swaps through which they were receiving upfront payments which under EU acc ounting rules could not be recorded as loans, even if in essence they were. Some do believe that derivatives played an important role in creating Greeces debt crisis and as a result, an urgent need to tighten financial regulation for derivatives has been identified. Last but not least, on a global level, the development of the crisis also brought critics of the credit rating agencies. As stated in a previous article (Minescu (2010)), following each financial crisis there has been a lot of talk on the failure of ratings issued by credit rating agencies to predict the crises. This failure may be understood in multiple ways, such as: failure of a rating to predict default, failure of a rating to be stable, failure of multiple agencies to issue similar levels of credit rating for the same country at the same time, or failure of an agency to issue a rating in the correct category of ratings (ie investment grade or junk). Talk of the failure of ratings has been central to this recent c risis as well and in August 2007 the head of Standard Poors even resigned amid criticism received from politicians and investors about the agencies failure to signal the risk of securities backed by sub-prime mortgages. As a result of the new wave of critics directed at rating agencies during this crisis, regulators are again aiming to improve the legislation concerned with conflicts of interest that result from the business models used by certain agencies (FT (3rd Feb 2011)). Conclusions The recent global crisis had multiple causes: The general cause appears to be a rapid growth of the level of debt (especially in the case of households), accompanied by sharp increases in real estate prices. In this respect, the crisis may have similarities with previous crises, such as the Asian crisis in the early 1990s. In addition to this, there have been individual causes for each country: In USA -the increased use of hybrid capital instruments and the adoption of the originate and distribute model by the banks, which involved the creation of diversified portfolios of credit instruments and their resale as a redesigned product; in Iceland the huge growth of the debt to GDP ratio to 1200%, which led to the fall of local banks; in Ireland -the burst of the real estate bubble in the context of a debt to GDP ratio of 900% generated huge costs for recapitalizing the Irish banking system; In Greece unsustainable budget deficits, lack of competitiveness of its economy due to overhi ring and overpayment in the public sector, inappropriate use of complex financial instruments; in Portugal large public debt and high budget deficit; in Spain the housing bust and its negative impact on the Spanish banking system, and the highest unemployment rate among all developed economies. Several countries have already received external help from the IMF and other organizations: Greece, Iceland, Ireland etc. The implications of the crisis have also been very complex: lower availability of credit, the decoupling of the core European countries from the peripheral ones, the creation of the European Financial Stability Facility (EFSF), debates on complex derivatives and their regulation, implications for the government debt issuance, criticism of the credit rating agencies for failing to predict the crisis, and others.

Happiness and Impossible Standards in Aristotles The...

Humans, throughout recorded history, have searched for a proper way of living which would lead them to ultimate happiness; the Nicomachean Ethics, a compilation of lecture notes on the subject written by Greek philosopher Aristotle, is one of the most celebrated philosophical works dedicated to this study of the way. As he describes it, happiness can only be achieved by acting in conformity with virtues, virtues being established by a particular culture’s ideal person operating at their top capacity. In our current society the duplicity of standards in relation to virtue makes it difficult for anyone to attain. To discover true happiness, man must first discover himself. Physiologically, happiness is activity of the mind, predominantly in†¦show more content†¦Each individual determines what kind of conduct is acceptable through societal conditioning achieved through personal experience. This very personalized path demonstrates that there is no true way to happiness that is the same for each individual. The only way in which one can discover their way to happiness by learning the virtues which are expected of them by society is putting them into practice. Aristotle puts great emphasis on the action and less on the knowledge of the action. Many people, particularly the young in Aristotle’s opinion, since they have less experience in their world will attempt to appeal to the multiple virtues that conflict with each other as they are presented to them. The mark of a wise man of experience is the ability to determine that which is good for him. Once one is able to discover the societal virtue corresponding to their particular nature and is able to pursue that which makes them active of mind and body in conformity with this relative virtue, they can be truly happy. The struggle of life is finding out exactly what makes you happy and how it is best to pursue that activity in your own culture. Aristotle’s definition of happiness is valid, but is only attainable in ancient Greek culture, as their virtues correspond to the culture’s values. In order to attain happiness in our own cultureShow MoreRelatedAristotle s Philosophy On Ethics1330 Words   |  6 PagesNicomachean ethics is the name of Aristotle’s work on ethics based on his lectures. It is said that Nicomachean ethics were named after either Aristotle’s father or son , as they were both named Nicomachus. Aristotle believed that happiness is what makes a person pure. To prove his point, Aristotle believed that there were four moral virtues that worked together; the virtue of great soul, the virtue of justice, the virtue of practical judgment and the virtue of being a truly good friend. TenRead MoreAristotles Philosophy on Purpose Essay884 Words   |  4 Pag esexceptionally impressive. His greatest known works are the Athenian Constitution and Nicomachean Ethics. Aristotle’s works of Ethics explore a vast area of topics. He states, â€Å"The goal of the Ethics is to determine how best to achieve happiness.† In order to achieve happiness, one must live a virtuous life, in the mind of Aristotle. Interest is sparked in this area that Aristotle writes of because there is a natural need for Ethics in human life. John K. Roth states, â€Å"Aristotle assumes that all things, humanRead MoreAristotle s Theory Of Aristotle1629 Words   |  7 Pagesteachings of his mentor, Plato, Aristotle’s philosophy finds its answers to major questions from the perspective of the teleological worldview. In the very first sentence of the Nicomachean Ethics, Aristotle introduces his teleological world view by asserting that every activity is aimed at a telos, or end, and how men move from potency to act. Aristotle then proceeds to outline his argument using the Teleological approach as he tries to answer the question: â€Å"what is happiness?† However, he answers itRead MoreThe Ethical Theories Of Aristotle s Theory Of A Life Well Spent On The Planet959 Words   |  4 PagesI am unwilling to commit to only one view presented by Anthony Kenny in his chapter on ethics. Aristotleâ⠂¬â„¢s theory on how we should live our lives is noble and worthy of being used as an example of what humans should attempt to become during the time allotted on the earth, but his theory seems to be unnecessarily complicated and tedious. Epicurus provides a theory that is more holistic but also is not without its defects, primarily that of treating the virtues as merely a means to an end. My wantRead MoreComparing Aristotle And David Hume1156 Words   |  5 Pagesto focus on, Aristotle and David Hume. 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As human beings, we must focus on the good purpose-- on the end productRead MoreIntroduction to Ethics1269 Words   |  6 PagesEthics What are we like, and what should we do? As humans we are faced with many decisions in life, which in and of itself, distinguishes us from the animal kingdom. Im sure other animals make decisions, but as humans we take into account our values and morals. In choosing which path to take with some of lifes decisions, ethics, are often at the center; heavily influencing our choices between what is right and what is wrong. Which are usually defined by society, as to what is acceptableRead MorePlato Vs Aristotle : Determining Good1668 Words   |  7 Pages Plato vs. Aristotle: Determining Good In this paper, I will present both Plato and Aristotle’s arguments for what their personal views are on determining good. Plato believed that knowing good was equal to doing good. He said that if a person knows the right thing that will automatically lead him to do the right thing. Aristotle on the other hand believed that knowing good was not enough to be good. He believed that one had to practice good if one is to be good. Plato was idealistic. He believedRead MoreAristotle s View On Human Nature Essay2321 Words   |  10 Pagesconcept of virtue theory, this is described at some length in the text Nicomachean Ethics. It is this view on human nature that I intend to explain and discuss throughout this essay with reference to some more recent philosophers to show that Aristotle’s view was not only linked directly to Athenian society but has managed to stand the test of time. A point I will return to later in a yet to posted article ‘Can we Consider Modern Ethics to be Aristotelian or Nietzschean?’, this article is much better writtenRead MorePolitical Philosophy and Plato Essay9254 Words   |  38 Pagescontemporary Aristophanes. Many would claim that Platos dialogues are the most comprehensive accounts of Socrates to survive from antiquity. Through his portrayal in Platos dialogues, Socrates has become renowned for his contribution to the field of ethics, and it is this Platonic Socrates who also lends his name to the concepts of Socratic irony and the Socratic method, or elenchus. The latter remains a commonly used tool in a wide range of discussions, and is a type of pedagogy in which a series of

Diversity- Rutgers Essay free essay sample

Some problems with diversity among Rutgers students have recently been the subject of five o’clock news channels everywhere with the tragic death of a student whose privacy wall was shattered when a video explicated his undercover sexual orientation. This is solely the fault of some ignorant people and has not, in any way, changed my view of Rutgers because what a college application cannot measure is information about prejudices that an applicant carries with them, until this essay has been made required. In my high school career, I have seen and learned about hate crimes and prejudice behavior, finding myself completely disturbed at the extent to which people will go to show their hatred of someone’s practices. I have also been on the forefront of many gay slurs, but never take offense to them. The trite, yet true, statement that â€Å"sticks and stones may break my bones, but words will never hurt me† has dwelled in my brain since the day I heard it as a child. We will write a custom essay sample on Diversity- Rutgers Essay or any similar topic specifically for you Do Not WasteYour Time HIRE WRITER Only 13.90 / page The words and remarks exacerbate throughout the years, but my reaction has never grown into more than an eye roll. I do dress different than most males and never took an interest in sports, rather taking interest in the sciences, fashion, and theater. Part of what I bring to Rutgers is my unconventionality. With my myriad of interests, I bring open mindedness to new things and people, never being at a loss of words when involved in a conversation with somebody new. Being raised as an Italian, family and bonds are very important to me, something I cherish above any material thing. Something my family taught me was to never stop helping someone in need until they are not in need anymore. I bring these same family values with me where ever I go, so Rutgers can be sure that this will be another contribution of mine. On a lighter note, I have a natural talent of using humor effectively in social situations. I find myself making people laugh constantly, which I use to bring many different people together. I always try my best to not only talk to a diverse group of people, but I then try to get those people to talk to other people, trying to stretch diversity even farther. This is mainly what I did with the Celebrations Club, an extracurricular activity I started in my high school. This club tried to bring together a diverse group of students of all ages, races, and backgrounds to help celebrate anything happening in the school by announcing it on a bulletin board. Starting this club showed me that I can use my humor, something I thought was only for fun, and combine it with my intelligence, determination, and social skills and start a club, something I would love to do at Rutgers. Overall, Rutgers can give me a college education, a necessity in today’s world and a milestone for myself and family, as well as the college experience. Having spent most of my time at my house and school in Manalapan, Rutgers acts as a new platform for me to take everything I stated above to a broader more diverse audience of people. Rutgers can also act as a wake-up call for me to the real world happenings through the stories other students bring to this college. Rutgers University is my ticket to a successful and fulfilling life where I hope to share my experiences, learn from others, and mature into an adulthood.

Substandard Patient Care or Health Care Delivery

Table of Contents Introduction Substandard Patient Care or Health Care Delivery Conclusion Reference List Introduction The world health organization defines health as a condition of absolute physical, mental and social fitness. Thus, the presence of diseases and infirmities do not necessarily reflect unhealthy status. Nevertheless, such infirmities and diseases can heal if patients subject themselves into health care facilities and services.Advertising We will write a custom research paper sample on Substandard Patient Care or Health Care Delivery specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More Perhaps to start with, a health care delivery system comprises of human resources, pharmaceutical drugs, surgical equipments, and other health care services vital to health demands. On the other hand, there are health care facilities such as dispensaries, clinics and hospitals controlled and administered by either the public or private segment. Each o f these health care facilities provides range of services. For example, public health care facilities provide curative and preventive care services while, the private segment deals with curative health care services. Thus, it is evident that there are many factors determining the health of an individual. In most cases, the environment where a person lives is imperative in determining health conditions. (Amanda, 2006, p. 1). As Michael (2006) notes, in highly populated regions, people seem poor hence, poor health care services. Of course, with the current economic downturn, many people have failed to secure first-rate patient care services. Worse still, health care professionals have made professional mistakes, which have led to many death cases. Research shows that substandard patient care has worsened the provision of health care services, and together with ignorance and negligence from health care professionals, many will loose life or encounter additional health problems (p.1). A t the present, substandard patient cost American taxpayers about US$3 billion per year on Medicare patients alone. Noticeably, the figure will be high we consider other departments. Personally, I have witnessed a number of cases arising from substandard patient care. In a rather disturbing note, I am able to recall about two medical malpractices done to two close family members. In my own view, substandard health care delivery causes more pain far above than the previous one. Moreover, it leads to leads to additional financial burdens, which many people fail to afford. It has come to my realization that many hospital facilities do not have enough human resource. The number of nurses attending patients is too low. In fact, some patients die unattended due to the shortage of health care workers. The few health care workers present work for long hours, making them unable to deliver efficiently. In many health care facilities, there is dire demand of health care equipments. (Gerson Lehr man Group, 2009, p. 1).Advertising Looking for research paper on health medicine? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More Substandard Patient Care or Health Care Delivery Substandard patient care occurs due to negligence or medical malpractices of health care workers. For example, it is quite legitimate and non-discriminatory to fire a nurse for failing to offer standard patient care. Not once, I have witnessed a number of cases where nurses fail to deliver due to incompetence. Nurses who lack professional nursing skills can cause additional health problems or even cause death. For example, one hospital in Oklahoma City recently released one nurse off her duties citing incompetency in work. The nurse who was working in the hospital’s anesthesia care unit had little experience in patient care. During her first weeks at the hospital’s patient care unit, the nurse seemed positive about her tasks. However, her incompetence came into public when I took my sister for a delivery process. From the first day, I realized something was wrong with the nurse’s attitude. This is because she could not even examine my sister first before proceeding with her professional roles. Worse still, the nurse could not account reports from other patients under her care. She seemed to take more offs without notifying the nurse in charge and therefore leaving patients agonizing. As for my case, the nurse failed to administer some basic drugs properly (IV drip and IV push). According to medical practitioners, such failures led to my sister develop health care complications while under patient care. In addition to this, the nurse could not even recall professional skills regarding the coding of patients in order to control respiratory distress in my sister. These and many other substandard patient cares left my sister in serious jeopardy. When experienced co-workers examined my sister, they found out that the nurse had participated substandard patient care. They therefore decided to terminate her contract to retain public confidence. Thus from this particular scenario, it is evident substandard health care causes additional health problems besides increasing the cost of health care services. (Legal Eagle Eye Newsletter for the Nursing Profession, 1996, p. 1). Five years ago, my grandfather died while undergoing recuperation at the patient care. The circumstances leading to his death resembled that of substandard patient care. My grandfather was suffering from aspiration pneumonia. In order to combat this health problem, the doctors had to carry out a bowel blockage operation. However, after two weeks, my grandfather died due to wrong operation that caused more pain hence, resulting to his death. My family strongly believes that the hospital erred in patient care. Since the day, my grandfather arrived at the hospital, substandard patient care exhibited. For example, it took the doctors three days t o carry out a CT scan test revealing his extended stomach.Advertising We will write a custom research paper sample on Substandard Patient Care or Health Care Delivery specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More Inside his stomach, a certain fluid extended all the way to the esophagus thus blocking the bowels. The problem demanded an operation in order to remove the fluid. In that case, surgical doctors settled on the idea of inserting a naso-gastric tube into his stomach aimed at removing the fluid. Nevertheless, these surgical doctors failed to perform the operation on time in what the hospital described as, â€Å"a busy patient care day†. After successful interaction with the hospital staff, we finally took my grandfather to an operation room later in the day. However, the absence of a nurse complicated matters especially on the fact that my grandfather had been vomiting the whole day and needed some patient care. Consequently, an anesthetist came to perform the operation but did not even have scan results. Definitely, the anesthetist went ahead to carry out a wrong surgery. Under anesthetics, a patient of this kind is likely to vomit when his muscles relax, and by the following morning, my grandfather had vomited two litres of fluid, one of it from the lungs. The fluid in the lungs had caused serious damages and eventual caused his death. Although the doctor appeared remorseful of his wrong surgery, he blamed substandard patient care as the main cause of my grandfather’s death. The doctor added that under such circumstances, death is unavoidable. (Natalie, 2010, p.1). Conclusion Many people die because of substandard patient care. The government should institute proper mechanisms of controlling deaths that occur due to substandard patient care. In the past, we have seen some families take health workers in court for their professional mistakes. To some extent, this has made nurses and doctors extra ca reful when executing their professional skills. Perhaps, professional medical bodies should enact legislations aimed at discouraging negligence and laziness at work. To some extent, this will improve standards of patient care and health care delivery. Reference List Amanda, G. (2006). Most Americans Getting Substandard Health Care. Web.Advertising Looking for research paper on health medicine? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More Gerson Lehrman Group. (2009). Negligent Patient Care: The Impact on the Cost of Health Care. Web. Legal Eagle Eye Newsletter for the Nursing Profession. (1996). Web. Michael, T. (2006). Pleasant Care Nursing Facility Struggles With Quality of Care Lawsuits: Newest Settlement with State Attorney General Will Place Monitor in Facility. Web. Natalie, A. (2010). Patient’s care ‘substandard’. Web. This research paper on Substandard Patient Care or Health Care Delivery was written and submitted by user Elsa P. to help you with your own studies. You are free to use it for research and reference purposes in order to write your own paper; however, you must cite it accordingly. You can donate your paper here.

The First African-American Church in the U.S.

The First African-American Church in the U.S. The African Methodist Episcopal Church, also called AME Church, was established by the Reverend Richard Allen in 1816. Allen founded the denomination in Philadelphia to unite African-American Methodist churches in the North. These congregations wanted to be free from white Methodists who historically had not allowed African-Americans to worship in desegregated pews.   As founder of the AME Church, Allen was consecrated  as its first bishop. The AME Church is a unique denomination in the Wesleyan traditionit is the only religion in the western hemisphere to develop from the sociological needs of its members. It is also the first African-American denomination in the United States. God our Father, Christ our Redeemer, Man our Brother - David Alexander Payne Organizational Mission Since its establishment in 1816, the AME Church has worked to minister to the needsspiritual, physical, emotional, intellectual and environmentalof people. Using liberation theology, the AME seeks to help those in need by preaching the gospel of Christ, providing food for the hungry, providing homes, encouraging those who have fallen on hard times as well as economic advancement, and providing employment opportunities to those in need. The History of the AME Church In 1787, the AME Church was established out of the Free African Society, an organization developed by Allen and Absalom Jones, who led African-American parishioners of St. Georges Methodist Episcopal Church to leave the congregation because of the racism and discrimination they faced. Together, this group of African-Americans would transform a mutual aid society into a congregation for people of African descent. In 1792, Jones founded the African Church in Philadelphia, an African-American church free from white control. Desiring to become an Episcopal parish, the church opened in 1794 as the African Episcopal Church and became the first black church in Philadelphia. However, Allen wanted to remain Methodist and led a small group to form the Mother Bethel African Methodist Episcopal Church in 1793. For the next several years, Allen fought for his congregation to worship free from white Methodist congregations. After winning these cases, other African-American Methodist churches  that were also encountering racism wanted independence. These congregations to Allen for leadership. As a result, these communities came together in 1816 to form a new Wesleyan denomination known as the AME Church. Before the abolition of slavery, most AME congregations could be found in Philadelphia, New York City, Boston, Pittsburgh, Baltimore, Cincinnati, Cleveland, and Washington D.C. By the 1850s, the AME Church had reached San Francisco, Stockton, and Sacramento. Once slavery ended, the AME Churchs membership in the South increased tremendously, reaching 400,000 members by 1880 in states such as South Carolina, Kentucky, Georgia, Florida, Alabama and Texas. And by 1896, the AME Church could boast membership on two continentsNorth America and Africaas there were churches established in Liberia, Sierra Leone, and South Africa. AME Church Philosophy The AME Church follows the doctrines of the Methodist Church. However, the denomination follows the Episcopal form of church government, having bishops as religious leaders. Also, since the denomination was founded and organized by African-Americans, its theology is based on the needs of people of African descent. Early Notable Bishops Since its inception, the AME Church has cultivated African-American men and women who could synthesize their religious teachings with a fight for social injustice. For example,  Benjamin Arnett addressed the 1893 Worlds Parliament of Religions, arguing that people of African descent have helped develop Christianity.  Additionally,  Benjamin Tucker Tanner wrote, An Apology for African Methodism in 1867 and The Color of Solomon in 1895. AME Colleges and Universities Education has always played an important role in the AME Church. Even before slavery was abolished in 1865, the AME Church began establishing schools to train young African-American men and women. Many of these schools are still active today and include senior colleges Allen University, Wilberforce University, Paul Quinn College, and Edward Waters College; junior college, Shorter College; theological seminaries, Jackson Theological Seminary, Payne Theological Seminary and Turner Theological Seminary. The AME Church Today The AME Church now has membership in thirty-nine countries on five continents. There are currently twenty-one bishops in active leadership and nine general officers who oversee various departments of the AME Church.

The Physics Behind Aircraft Wing Design Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1500 words

The Physics Behind Aircraft Wing Design - Essay Example Birds alter the form of their wings to revolve and maneuver. They supposed that they could utilize this methodology to get spinning control by bending or alteration of shape, of a part of the wing. So, the brothers designed numerous gliders (Reals, 2012). These gliders were soared as unmanned, as well as piloted. They referred to the discoveries of Cayley and Langley, and the suspended gliding flights of Lilienthal. They matched with Chanute with regard to some of their ideologies. They distinguished that management of the flying airplanes would be the most vital and intricate quandaries to resolve. Following these triumphant glider examinations, the Wrights designed and scrutinized their test location due to its windy weather, sand, hilly topography and remote position. The Wrights victoriously analyzed their novel fifty pound duo plane glider in 1900. It had a seventeen feet wing width and wing arching machinery. The construction of gliders was an upshot of a gradual technique of d iscerning aerodynamics and then managing the flights, building and scrutinizing numerous glider designs. These gliders operated but not to the anticipations of the Wrights based on the researches and dissertations of their forerunners. Their foremost glider initiated in 1900 only has approximately half the expected lift. Moreover, their subsequent glider performed worse. However, they continued their endeavor and built a wind tunnel, as well as numerous, complex apparatus to calculate lift and drag on the two hundred wing plan they examined. As a consequence, they resolved their previous quandaries in computations concerning drag as well as lift. Their examination and computations generated another glider with an enormous aspect proportions and accurate three axes management. They flew it victoriously in numerous instances thorough the structure of designing, wind channel scrutinized of airfoils and flight examination of whole size models. They resolved the quandaries of power and m anagement of an airplane. These resolutions were through invention of wing arching for spin management; together with concurrent yaw management with a steerable back controls (Crouch, 2008). History and Improvements of Aircrafts Wing Designs and the Physics of its Operation A fluid passing through the facade of a body applies surface energy on that surface. Lift is the constituent of this force that is vertical to the approaching flow course. It differs from drag force, which is the constituent of the facade force corresponding to the flow course. If the substance is air, the energy is the aerodynamic energy. There is an enormous interconnection if lift and the wing of a fixed wing airplane, though lift also emanates from propeller. When an airplane is soaring straightforwardly and level, most of the lift contests gravity. Nonetheless, when an airplane is ascending or descending in a twirl, the lift tilts with regard to the vertical. Lift might also be totally downwards in some aero batic movements, or the wing on racing vehicle. Streamline form of enables aircrafts to produce considerable lift as contrasted to drag (Robert, 2012). The underpinning principles of lift in planes emanate from the concepts of physics. Firstly, there are Newton’s principles of movements, especially the second principle which interrelate the force on a component of air to its velocity of momentum alteration. Secondly, there is the preservation of mass, as

Project Management Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2000 words - 1

Project Management - Essay Example Rapid results benefits fall into three classes. First, mini projects allow the initiators to determine the success rate of the projects in terms of the activities that require undertaking. Correction of Problems seen at early stages normally carried out as soon as there is the detection this reduces the chances of shady work. Secondly, result delivery period is short. During the implementation of the mini projects in a project, results achievement is less than a hundred days. Lastly, rapid results approach enhances motivation at work due to the quick results. Workers or employees feel a sense of reward due to quick results and hence feel that if they work more hard more results achieved. According to (Sylvester, n.d.) there are several attributes that require inclusion in rapid results for result achievement include impact variable, period, measurement, and scope. People and managers have a different perspective of Rapid results; the view is that it prevents project failure and probl em identification done at the beginning rather than waiting for the outcome at the end. According to reports, fifty percent of the projects fail, this is due to lack of use of rapid results. An example of a current workplace that lacks utilization of rapid result initiative in Kenya. A case study showing the number of people infected and living with HIV and AIDS in Kenya shows that many people have the virus, but they do not know. The lack of awareness is due to lack of use of rapid result initiatives (Mwangi, 2012). According to a survey undertaken in 2007 by Kenya Aids Indicator Survey (KAIS) and published by CDC, shows that eight out of ten infected people are unaware of their status. In the next year that is 2008, a research indicated that 6.3 percent of the adults between the ages of fifteen and forty-nine are living with HIV.

Reaction against hydrogen peroxide Essay Example for Free

Reaction against hydrogen peroxide Essay The action of catalase on hydrogen peroxide Aim The aim of this experiment is to discover the relationship between the concentration of the substrate and the rate of the reaction catalysed by an enzyme, by looking at the decomposition of hydrogen peroxide under the action of catalase, and to determine a value for Vmax and the Michaelis constant for catalase. Background Theory An enzyme is a protein biological catalyst. Catalysts speed up or slow down the rate at which chemical reactions occur. They are not used up in the reactions and can be retrieved unchanged afterwards. Biological catalysts control the rate of reactions in living things. Each enzyme is substrate specific it can control only one reaction. For example, the digestion of starch is begun in the mouth by the enzyme amylase. An equation for this reaction can be shown like this: Amylase Starch Simple sugars The enzyme only facilitates the reaction, it is not used up. Each molecule of enzyme can be reused indefinitely, unless it is damaged, or denatured. Enzymes are proteins, so they are denatured if the polypeptide chains, which are precisely coiled and folded to form the active site, become unfolded by the kinetic energy from heat, or the covalent bonds are disrupted. Whilst some heat will increase the rate of reaction because of the increased number of collisions between enzyme and substrate, too much heat will denature the enzyme and render it completely ineffective. Enzymes are also affected by the pH at which they have to work. Charged hydrogen or hydroxide ions in acids or alkalis can cancel out the charges on the active sites of the enzymes, and render them ineffective. Hydrogen peroxide is a toxin produced in every cell of living organisms as a by-product of respiration. It is the same chemical that is used to bleach hair, and so must be broken down before it can damage the cells. It decomposes to give water and oxygen. This reaction will occur naturally, but at a very slow rate. To speed it up an enzyme is used. The enzyme which catalyses the decomposition of hydrogen peroxide is called catalase. Catalase is found in all living cells to decompose the hydrogen peroxide. In this experiment it is being obtained from live yeast in a suspension. The method by which catalase works is called the lock and key method. Catalase works because it has an active site. At this point the enzyme attaches to the hydrogen peroxide molecule, because the opposite charges of enzyme and substrate attract each other, forming an enzyme substrate complex. The enzyme catalyses the reaction, and then the new charges on the product repel the enzyme away to act on a new substrate molecule. (see fig 1) The decomposition of hydrogen peroxide has the following formula: catalase 2H2O2 2H2O + O2 The rate of a reaction is a measure of the change in the amount of reactant or product with time. The rate of decomposition H2O2 can be measured using the volume of oxygen produced, from the formula: Rate of reaction = change in amount of product time The rate of reaction is determined by collision theory:- For a reaction between two substances to occur, the enzyme and substrate particles must collide with each other. If more collisions occur in a reaction, rate will increase. If the reactant particles gain energy and collide faster, then each collision will have more energy, there will be more successful collisions, and rate will also increase. In this case, the more collisions between hydrogen peroxide and catalase molecules, the more hydrogen peroxide will decompose. Anything which increases collisions will increase rate. Increasing the concentration of the substrate (hydrogen peroxide) solution means that there are more substrate molecules in the same volume, causing more collisions, and thus increasing rate. The rate of reaction changes with concentration, but the overall yield of oxygen is independent of factors affecting the rate, so measuring the amount of oxygen produced over the whole reaction is meaningless. Instead, the initial rate of reaction can be estimated by measuring the volume of oxygen produced in the early stages of the reaction. This value can then be compared between the different concentrations of hydrogen peroxide, and used to plot a graph of substrate concentration against rate, from which values for Vmax and the Michaelis constant (Km) can be obtained. The relationship between substrate concentration and rate of reaction is described by the Michaelis-Menton equation: v = Vmax [S] Km + [S]. Vmax is a measure of the maximum rate at which an enzyme can act, and it is the horizontal asymptote of the graph of substrate against time that is when the amount of enzyme is the limiting factor. The Km is defined as the substrate concentration at which the rate of enzyme action is half Vmax. It is measure of the affinity of an enzyme for its substrate molecule the higher Km, the weaker the binding force between the enzyme and substrate. Both Km and Vmax are constants at a specific enzyme concentration and temperature. Pilot Experiment A pilot experiment was carried out in order to see whether the method was practical and could produce good, reliable results, and to choose the concentrations of hydrogen peroxide and the length of time over which the oxygen would be collected so that no more than 50cm3 of gas was given off. Pilot Method 1. 10cm3 of hydrogen peroxide solution was measured into boiling tubes using a syringe, and the apparatus set up as shown below. 2. Using a 1cm3 syringe the yeast suspension was added to the boiling tube and the stopwatch started. 3. Thirty seconds was timed, and then the burette was taken off the end of the delivery tube, but not out of the water, and the volume of gas collected was measured. 4. This was recorded and repeated for each concentration of hydrogen peroxide, made up as shown in the dilution tables below. Pilot Results Concentration of hydrogen peroxide Initial reading on burette (cm3) Final reading on burette (cm3) Volume of gas collected (cm3) Rate of reaction (cm3/s) to 2dOff scale. Analysis of and Modifications to the Pilot These results show a clear increase in the volume of gas collected as the concentration increases, suggesting that with modifications this method will enable clear conclusions to be drawn. Carrying the experiment out over 30s resulted in too much gas being produced at the highest concentration to be recorded with the apparatus available, so for the main experiment the oxygen will be collected over 15s. More readings will be taken to enable a more reliable graph to be drawn at9 and 20%. The experiment will be repeated three times and any anomalous results will be identified and excluded from the average in order to enable more reliable results. Prediction I predict that initially the rate of reaction will increase with the concentration. As the concentration of hydrogen peroxide increases so will the number of collisions between enzyme and substrate molecules, so the hydrogen peroxide will decompose faster into water and oxygen. I predict that this reaction will obey Michaelis-Menton kinetics, and that the graph of rate of reaction against hydrogen peroxide concentration will give a rectangular hyperbola as shown below: The increase in rate of reaction will not continue indefinitely there will be an asymptote when Rate = Vmax, when all the catalase molecules are catalysing the reaction as fast as possible, and so the rate cannot increase without supplying more enzyme. Main Experiment Plan Fair Test A fair test is one from which a reliable conclusion can be drawn. For a fair test only one variable must be changed at a time. In this experiment the concentration of hydrogen peroxide is being changed, and so all others must be controlled. Variables. Independent Variable:- concentration of hydrogen peroxide Dependent Variable:- volume of oxygen gas collected in 15s Controlled Variables:- temperature, volume of hydrogen peroxide, amount of yeast, apparatus, time.   The reaction will be carried out in a water bath at 20? C. Since water is a good thermal buffer it should be fairly easy to keep the temperature constant.   Volume of hydrogen peroxide solution will be controlled quite easily by using two syringes to measure the water and hydrogen peroxide volumes as dictated by the dilution table below.

Writing and Reading for a New Generation Essay -- Internet Cyberspace

â€Å"Writing and Reading for a New Generation† In the past decade, the Internet has taken over. Everyone from young children to senior citizens can communicate, send e-mail, or look up any bit of information in seconds. Because of the overwhelming shift to Internet technology and communication, many aspects of writing have been forever changed. Writers often write differently for the Internet than they do for a physical publication. Readers often read differently on the Internet than physically written text. Within the forms of Internet writing exists one unlike the others and that is personal publishing web sites, such as blogger, live journal, diary land—the list goes on. By allowing any individual to publish anything onto the web, the traditional ideas of writing and reading are automatically forfeited to a new generation of writers. The first thing to understand about personal publishing sites is their uses. What the site will be used for can also dictate which site a person will utilize. For instance, something like diary land (diaryland.com) is typically used strictly as an online journal. People record their thoughts, what they’ve been doing, and what events are coming up in their lives. Like a personal web site, users will personalize the layout of the â€Å"diary† including pictures, borders, etc. Other sites, like blogger (blogger.com), can be used for personal means or professional ones. In the case of my English 328 class, blogs can even be used as a place to respond to writing prompts for homework. In looking at these sites, I noticed that blogger more than the others also had blogs specific to certain interests. For instance, one blog was dedicated solely to lovers of palm pilots. The wa... ...sible to imagine a world in which books were an outdated, archaic technology but as we push further into the future and the future of writing, the possibility looms as a larger and larger force to be reckoned with. Works Cited Bradbury, Grace. â€Å"Diary of a Call Girl.† The Times(London). 10 Mar. 2004, n.68019. T2, p.4. Tribble, Evelyn B. and Anne Trubek, eds. Writing Material: Readings for Plato to the Digital Age. New York: Longman, 2003. Landow, George. â€Å"Twenty Minutes into the Future, or How Are We Moving Beyond the Book?† Tribble & Trubek 214-226. Sosnoski, James. â€Å"Hyper-readers and their Reading Engines.† Tribble & Trubek 400-417. Wagner, Erica. â€Å"A High Price to Pay for Sex Without Love.† The Times (London). 10 Mar. 2004, n. 68019. T2, p.5.

Influence of Parents on Academic Performance Essay

Authorities parenting, psychosocial maturity and academic success among adolescents, study of Steinberg et al. (1989) describes that when a parents treat their child warmly, democratically, and firmly, they will develop positive attitudes, they will achieve more and do better in school. Multidimensional conceptualization of parent involvement in children’s schooling according to Grolmck’s (1994), it describes that parents must support their child specially to their experiences. Parental Involvement and academic achievement of peer accepted and peer rejected children, a study by Chowdhary and Jayasmita (1997), describes that parental involvement may have influence to the academic performance of a child as a accepted or rejected. Comparative study of parent-child relationships of high and low achievers, study by Kang et al. (1997); the Tiwari (1997) was used to develop this study, it used eight dimensions at parent and child relations such as acceptance, rejection, domina nce-submission, encouragement-discouragement, love-hate, authoritarian-democratic, reward-punishment, trust-disburst, tolerance-hostility. In this study it reveals that children who had warm relationships with their parents achieved higher in classroom. Parent-child relationship and academic motivation, study of Suman et al. (2003), it revealed that the achievement motivation was higher when adolescents perceived their parents as loving and demanding. Sibling rivalry and relation to achievement motivation, study of Vasuki et. al (2004), data were from Neerakatwal’s (1988) and Deo Mohan’s Achievement Motivation Scale (1985), it showed that rivalry towards siblings, tended to have low levels of achievement motivation. Effect of Peer Academic Reputation on Achievement Gest et. al (2005) argued that peer academic reputation (PAR) may influence children’s academic motivation and achievement even if it is not veridical. This argument is consistent with research on the effect of teacher expectations on achievement, which demonstrates that teacher perception of children’s academic ability, whether accurate or not, affect student’s grades and scores on standardized achievement tests (for reviews see Brophy, 1983, Jussim Eccles, and Mardon 1996, and Jussim and Harber, 2005) Developmental Issues Researchers speculate that growth in social cognitive skills, including the capacity and motivation to use social comparison information to shape self-evaluations, account for the trend toward more negative and more differentiated self-perception in grades K-3 (Kuklinsks and Weinstein 2001: Markus and Wurf, 1987). Also make children the transition from kindergarten to the more formal academic setting of grades 1-3, more social comparison cues, may be available, and feedback on one’s academic performance may be based more on comparison to others versus improvement over one’s prior performance (Eccles et. al, 1993: Ruble and Frey, 1987: Ruble, Grosovsky, Frey, and Cohen, 1992) Influence of siblings on adjustment of adolescents Conger et al. (1997) carried a study on parents, siblings, psychological control and adolescents. Data were obtained by using Rosenberg measure of self esteem (Rosenberg, 1965) Pearten measure of control and mastery developed by (Pearlin, 1981), SCR-90-R (Symptom checklist revised; Derogatis, 1983) was administered. Results of the study indicated that psychological control both by parents and by siblings contributes to increase adolescents adjustment problems and to diminished self-confidence. Vasuki et al. (2004) carried a study on â€Å"sibling rivalry and its relation to frustration, mental health and self conflict of adolescents† on a sample of 60 girls and 60 boys from three city schools of in the age group of 15-18 years. Data were obtained using Neerakatual’s (1998) sibling relationship questionnaire, Chauhan and Govind Tiwari’s (1969) Frustration test, Smt Rama Tiwari’s (1986) self conflict questionnaire, Jagdish and Srivastava’s Mental health questionnaire. Results of the study revealed that both males and females of dyads and multiples showed rivalry towards their siblings in a homogeneous way. Greater extent of sibling rivalry also lead the adolescents to become more frustrated. Oliva et al. (2005) carriedout a study on â€Å"sibling relationship during adolescence† on a sample of 513 adolescents aged between 13 and 19 years. Data were obtained by using an instrument created by Steinberg et al. (1991) to assess the parenting style, questionnaire on sibling relationships (QSR; Arranz et al., 1994), inventory of peer attachment (IPA) developed by Armsdeu and Greenberg (1987) and Rosenberg self-esteem scale (RSES; Rosenberg, 1965). Results of this study indicated that having siblings was related to adolescent’s social and personal adjustment, although only among girls and only in cases of good sibling relationships. In cases of poor sibling adjustment, it was the negative effects of every day situations of rivalry and conflict outweighed the benefits of any support that was provided.

Analysis Dogville - 30953 Words

Resumà © I denne projektrapport foretages en analyse af filmen Dogville, 2003, instrueret af Lars von Trier. Ved premieren og i den debat, filmen vakte, blev den karakteriseret som anti-amerikansk, moralsk, religià ¸s m.m. Projektet er udarbejdet ud fra den tese, at Dogville er en film med en meget kompleks form, hvilket gà ¸r det svà ¦rt at tage den til indtà ¦gt for bestemte holdninger. I analysen undersà ¸ges denne tese, og i diskussionen holdes filmens form op imod dens indhold. Rapporten konkluderer, at filmen er udprà ¦get formbevidst, og at de temaer, den prà ¦senterer, er underlagt dette. Filmen er en à ¦stetisk provokation. Analysen er eksemplificeret, men ikke gennemfà ¸rt dokumenteret, hvorfor rapportens forfattere tillader sig at anbefale†¦show more content†¦De gà ¸r sammen med den lidt gammeldags voice-over-fortà ¦ller og dens mindelser om teater Dogville usà ¦dvanlig. Det gà ¸r ogsà ¥, at filmen stritter i mange retninger, og det er derfor svà ¦rt at tag e den til indtà ¦gt for à ©n bestemt holdning. Alligevel er den blevet anmeldt, anskuet og diskuteret som om, den udtrykker en sà ¥dan. Det er den diskrepans, der er emnet i denne rapport. 1.1 Motivation Film er levende billeder. Narrative film er historier fortalt via levende billeder – altsà ¥ en visuel gestaltning af fiktioner, som vi kender dem fra bl.a. romaner. Vores interesse var ved projektarbejdets start, hvordan disse levende billeder bliver fortalt tilskueren, og hvilken indflydelse fortà ¦lleformen har pà ¥ den mà ¥de, vi afkoder de levende billeder pà ¥ là ¦rredet. Pà ¥ et helt overordnet plan handler det om, hvordan der fortà ¦lles i film. En filmfortà ¦lling bestà ¥r af en rà ¦kke sammenklippede billedsekvenser, der kan và ¦re struktureret pà ¥ forskellig vis, og som suppleres af lyd. Den kan benytte mere eller mindre tydelige narrative greb, men der vil altid và ¦re tale om en formidlende instans: en fortà ¦ller. I litteraturen kendes denne instans i et utal af afskygninger: fà ¸rstepersons-fortà ¦ller, tredjepersons-fortà ¦ller, scenisk og olympisk fortà ¦ller etc. Og der findes igen massevis af variationer indenfor de enkelteShow MoreRelate dAnalysis Of Why Not Just Call It Dogville?1365 Words   |  6 PagesMark Shasha Friday, February 27, 2015 DogVille – Film Analysis Why not just call it DogVille? DogVille, a film adaptation of the book DogVille written and directed by Lars von Trier, takes place in a small town of the same name in the Rocky Mountains in Colorado during the period of the Great Depression. DogVille has a population of about 13 adults and a few children, most of which have never left the town in their entire lives. One night, one of the residents, Tom Edison Jr., hears a gunshots coming

Low density lipoprotein (ldl) cholesterol - Free Essay Example

Sample details Pages: 17 Words: 5131 Downloads: 5 Date added: 2017/06/26 Category Health Essay Type Narrative essay Did you like this example? Elevated cholesterol, particularly low density lipoprotein (LDL) cholesterol, is a well defined risk factor for the development of atherosclerosis (NCEP, 2002). Atherosclerotic lesions are thought to form in response to endothelial damage caused by excess LDL (Steinberg, 2005). Most cases of cardiovascular disease (CVD), the leading cause of mortality and disability in the developed countries, are ascribed to pathology of atherosclerosis. Don’t waste time! Our writers will create an original "Low density lipoprotein (ldl) cholesterol" essay for you Create order Strategies to lower plasma LDL cholesterol levels are therefore crucial in the prevention and treatment of CVD (OKeefe et al., 2009). Conversely to plasma LDL levels, elevated high density lipoproteins (HDL) are protective against the development of CVD. Low density lipoproteins are responsible for the transport of cholesterol and fatty acids from the liver to the various tissues of the body. In contrast HDL is responsible for the majority of reverse cholesterol transport (RCT), in which cholesterol from the peripheral cells are returned to the liver for excretion in the bile (Joy and Hegele, 2008). It is this major role that HDL plays in RCT that is attributed with HDLs anti-atherogenic effects. Therefore strategies which elevate HDL levels are also beneficial in the prevention and treatment of CVD. Plasma cholesterol can be synthesized by the body (hepatic or extra-hepatic sources) or absorbed from the intestines (dietary or biliary sources). Statins, which are a family of HMG-C OA reductase inhibitors, reduce cholesterol synthesis and are very effective and can achieve plasma cholesterol lowering of up to 55% and have been shown to reduce CVD risk by one-third (Stein, 2002). Statin therapy has also been shown to increase plasma HDL levels from 2-16%, it is not know if this increase is clinically significant to the efficacy of statin therapy as it is difficult to separate this small and variable increase from the benefit of the significant LDL lowering (Hou and Goldberg, 2009). Regardless of the statins efficacy of return LDL cholesterol levels to their desired range, a significant proportion of statin users continue to have adverse events (Alsheikh-Ali et al., 2007). Therapies which reduce intestinal cholesterol or bile acid absorption are also available. Plant sterol/stanols, dietary fibre, bile acid sequestrants have been shown to be effective, with LDL cholesterol reductions of 10-15%, 8.5-13% and 5-30% respectively (Hou and Goldberg, 2009). The drug Ez etimibe, which binds to Niemann-Pick C1 Like 1 (NPC1L1) protein a crucial mediator of cholesterol absorption (Chang and Chang, 2008), has also been demonstrated to lower LDL cholesterol levels by 16-19% (Pandor et al., 2009). The wide ranges of cholesterol lowering seen in each treatment are likely the product of genetic factors which vary the rates of cholesterol synthesis and absorption, as well as modulate the effectiveness of each intervention. Because of this genetic heterogeneity of cholesterol synthesis and absorption, being able to effectively measure these parameters and how they respond to different dietary, pharmaceutical or lifestyle interventions is paramount to understanding interventions effect on cholesterol metabolism. Methods to assess cholesterol absorption Direct Method A direct method of measuring cholesterol absorption refers to measuring cholesterol flux from the intestines to the lymph. It is a direct method because it does not use a faecal or plasma level of cholesterol to infer absorption (Gibson, 1984). The first direct method of measuring cholesterol absorption required a duodenal cannula for infusion and cannulisation of the mesenteric or thoracic lymph ducts to sample lymph (Pouteau et al., 2003a). This method has been successfully used to access cholesterol absorption in rats, dogs and rabbits. The use of radioactively labelled cholesterol in the duodenal infusion allows for the distinction between exogenous and billiary cholesterol and can be used to calculate the percent absorption of exogenous cholesterol. An alternative direct method for use in humans was introduced by Grundy and Mok (1977). The intestinal perfusion method (sometimes refered to as Method VII) requires intubation with a three-lumen tube. Liquid formula and ÃÆ'Ã… ¸-s itosterol (though to be a non-absorbable cholesterol degradation marker at the time) is infused into the duodenum at the Ampulla of Vater though the first tube, and intestinal content is aspirated from the 2nd and 3rd tube, 10 and 100 cm distal to the first, respectively. Analysis of the aspirate from allows for the calculation of net hourly cholesterol absorption across the 100 cm long segment of intestine. Discriminating between exogenous and endogenous sources of cholesterol can be done by infusing radioactive cholesterol. The use of ÃÆ'Ã… ¸-sitosterol as a non-absorbable marker in this method may not have been the most appropriate choice given what is known about plant sterols and inhibition of cholesterol absorption at even very low levels (Calpe-Berdiel et al., 2009; Ostlund et al., 2002a; Ostlund et al., 2002b). Plant sterols complete with cholesterol for absorption into gut enterocytes, but are then exported back into the intestines by ABCG5 and ABCG8 transporters. This inh ibition was seen by Grundy and Mok, who noticed that even small increases in ÃÆ'Ã… ¸-sitosterol concentration caused noticeable reductions in measured cholesterol absorption (Grundy and Mok, 1977). The use of an inhibitor of cholesterol absorption in a method to access cholesterol absorption obviously leads to underestimation of actual cholesterol absorption capacity, and this must be taken into account when comparing absorption values among different methods. Another downside to the direct measurements techniques is their invasiveness, however they are the only methods which yield direct measures of total, exogenous and endogenous cholesterol absorption across a section of the intestine (Gibson, 1984). Cholesterol balance methods Cholesterol balance methods use the differences between dietary cholesterol and faecal cholesterol, excluding cholesterol of endogenous origins, to estimate cholesterol absorption (Matthan and Lichtenstein, 2004). Radioactive labelled cholesterol is used to distinguish endogenous from exogenous cholesterol and faecal and plasma levels of cholesterol are measured. There are 4 main balance methods, following the nomenclatures from Grundy and Arhens (1969), they are Method I, II, III and V. Method I consists of a single dose of [14C] or [3H] radio-isotope labelled cholesterol administered intravenously (Grundy and Ahrens, 1969; Quintao et al., 1971). This radio-isotope labels endogenous cholesterol and its subsequent steroid products. Using the formula: daily exogenous absorbed cholesterol (mg/day) = daily cholesterol intake (mg/day) à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â‚¬Å" daily unabsorbed dietary cholesterol (mg/day), and daily unabsorbed cholesterol (mg/day) = faecal neutral steroids per day (mg/day) endogenous faecal neutral steroids per day (mg/day). Endogenous faecal neutral steroids are calculated by dividing the total radioactivity (dpm/day) in the total faecal neutral steroids by the specific activity (dpm/mg) of the plasma cholesterol 1-2 days prior (depending on gastrointestinal transit time). Method II requires continuous oral labelling with radioactive cholesterol (Grundy and Ahrens, 1969; Quintao et al., 1971). The radio-labelled cholesterol is generally incorporated into a liquid diet to insure a precise daily intake of radiosterol for many weeks. Cholesterol absorption is calculated using the formula Z = X + Y, and Z * SA(Z)= X *SA(X) + Y * SA(Y), where Z = total faecal neutral steroids (mg/day), SA(Z) = specific activity of total faecal neutral steroid (dpm/mg), X = faecal neutral steroids of endogenous origin (mg/day), SA(X) = specific activity of plasma cholesterol (dpm/mg), Y= daily unabsorbed dietary cholesterol (mg/day), and SA(Y) = specific activity of diet ary cholesterol (dpm/mg). The equations are solved for Y, and absorption measurements can be done at any time after 4 days of continuous radioisotope feeding, a isotopic steady state is not required. It has been shown that Method II provides more consistent data on cholesterol absorption than, and is therefore recommended over, Method I (Gibson, 1984; Matthan and Lichtenstein, 2004). Method III was introduced by Wilson and Lindsey (1965) and requires an isotopic steady state. Continuous feeding with radioisotope labelled cholesterol for greater than 100 days is required to reach an isotopic steady state. When an isotopic steady state is reached daily cholesterol turnover is calculated, and daily absorbed dietary cholesterol is calculated by the formula: Dietary cholesterol absorption (mg/day) = daily cholesterol turnover (mg/day) * (specific activity of plasma cholesterol/specific activity of dietary cholesterol). Failure to reach an isotopic steady state will yield an underestim ate of actual dietary cholesterol absorption (Gibson, 1984). The long period required to reach an isotopic steady state and difficulty determining when this state has been reached make Method III a difficult and unreliable method. Method III was shown to give lower values of cholesterol absorption than both Method I and II in direct comparison (Quintao et al., 1971). Method V (Grundy et al., 1971) is a combination of methods I and II. Subjects are continuously fed isotopically labelled cholesterol as in Method I and then given a single bolus of different isotopically labelled cholesterol as in Method II. The equations for Method II are used, with only the modification of the X *SA(X) term which is replaced by [(R)(SA(X oral)) / (SA(X intravenous))], where R= daily faecal neutral steroid excretion of intravenous cholesterol (mg/day), SA(X oral) = plasma specific activity of oral isotope taken 1 day before R (dpm/mg), SA(X intravenous) = plasma specific activity of intravenous isot ope taken 1 day before R. Method V was designed for situation when rates of cholesterol synthesis are unusually high (due to surgical or pharmacological interference with enterohepatic circulation), which can lead to endogenous cholesterol being secreted into the intestines prior to isotopic equilibration(Gibson, 1984). In this circumstance (very high synthesis) Method I would underestimate and Method II would overestimate cholesterol absorption. Methods I, II and V all require a marker for gastrointestinal transit time, and for cholesterol degradation in the gut. Chromic oxide is often used as a marker of gastrointestinal transit time. ÃÆ'Ã… ¸-sitosterol has been used as a control for cholesterol degradation, however it must again be mentioned that if ÃÆ'Ã… ¸-sitosterol is used as a marker then the cholesterol absorption values obtained are likely lower than the actual values. However, in these methods if the degradation of cholesterol in the gut is not accounted for, the calc ulated cholesterol absorption will be higher than the actual values (Quintao et al., 1971). Isotope ratio methods Isotope ratio methods measure only the percentage cholesterol absorption (Pouteau et al., 2003a), unlike balance methods, and require accurate record of dietary cholesterol intake to estimate the mass of exogenous cholesterol absorbed from the percentage (Matthan and Lichtenstein, 2004). Method IV (also called faecal isotope ratio method), first introduced by Borgstrom (1969) calculates cholesterol absorption as the percentage of a single oral dose of radio-labelled cholesterol not recovered in the faeces. A single 1 ÃŽÂ ¼Ci radio-labelled dose of both cholesterol and ÃÆ'Ã… ¸-sitosterol is administered orally and feces are collected for seven to eight days. The ratio of labelled cholesterol to labelled ÃÆ'Ã… ¸-sitosterol in a sample of the pooled faeces samples is compared to the ratio that was given orally and cholesterol absorption is calculated using the formula: Cholesterol Absorption (%) = 1 à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â‚¬Å"((Faecal Cholesterol (dpm) /Faecal ÃÆ'Ã… ¸-sitosterol (dpm) ) * (Oral Cholesterol (dpm)/Oral ÃÆ'Ã… ¸-sitosterol (dpm))) *100. This method has been modified to allow a single faecal sampling, Sodhi et al. (1974) administered a faecal flow marker, such as chromic oxide or carmine red, with the original test dose, and calculated the faecal isotopic ratio at the peak level of the marker in the faeces rather than a sample of the pooled faeces. This single faecal sampling modification of Method IV has been compared to the original Method IV and Method I in baboons and it yielded consistently higher absorption levels, suggesting that this modification may weaken the accuracy (Mott et al., 1980). Method IV, despite the long period of faecal collection required, uses a far smaller dose of radioactivity than the balance methods, and is relatively straightforward and simplistic in execution (Gibson, 1984). It does still require ÃÆ'Ã… ¸-sitosterol as a marker of cholesterol degradation in the gut, so it shares the drawbacks previously discussed. Th e plasma isotope ratio method (IRM or Method VI), was first introduced by Zilversmit (1972) in rats and then subsequently carried out in humans (Samuel et al., 1978). The IRM involves simultaneous oral and intravenous administration of C14 and H3 radio-labelled cholesterol and requires only a single blood sample 3-4 days afterwards. The methods principles are based on the measurement of drug absorption used in pharmacology. If the absorption of cholesterol was 100% than the specific activity curve of both radio labelled cholesterols would be the same, if absorption was zero, none of the orally administered cholesterol, and therefore zero radioactivity from the oral radioisotope would appear in the plasma. Since cholesterol absorption falls between zero and 100%, the ratio of the two plasma radioactivities, after normalization for dose, are used to calculate absorption using the formula: Cholesterol Absorption (%) = 100 * (% oral dose in plasma/ % IV dose in plasma), where % oral dos e and % IV dose in plasma are the percentage of IV and oral tracer in the plasma sample, respectively (Samuel et al., 1982). The ratio is calculated 3-4 days after radioisotope administration because the specific activity time curves of both radioisotopes must be parallel. This does not occur in human until 3-4 days due to a delay in the appearance of the oral radioisotope in the blood related to the mechanisms of cholesterol absorption (Gibson, 1984). The IRM advantages over previous methods include: 1)only a single blood sample is required, 2) a low dose of radioisotope is used, 3)it does not require faecal collection 4) it does not required markers, such as ÃÆ'Ã… ¸-sitosterol, to correct for faecal losses. The IRM lends its self to repeated use because of its short duration and low level of labelling, this allows for investigation of variations in cholesterol absorption under different experimental parameters in the same individual in a comparatively short time period. The IRM m ethod has been validated in human numerous times against method IV under different conditions yielding similar results(Samuel et al., 1978; Samuel et al., 1982). A third isotope ratio method, Method VIII was introduced by Crouse and Grundy (1978), it shares similarities to Method IV, average cholesterol absorption is calculated using the ratio administered cholesterol to ÃÆ'Ã… ¸-sitosterol measured in the faeces, but differs in the method of isotope administration. C14 Cholesterol and H3 ÃÆ'Ã… ¸-sitosterol are administered orally three times daily for 10 days, and faeces can be collected from day 4-10 (Gibson, 1984; Matthan and Lichtenstein, 2004). Following day 3 of isotope administration the ratio of isotopes in the faeces becomes essentially constant and cholesterol absorption is calculated by the formula: Absorption (%)= 100* ((Faecal cholesterol (dpm)/Faecal sitosterol (dpm))/1-dietary cholesterol (dpm)/ dietary sitosterol (dpm)) This method requires only the ratio o f radioactivity in a single faecal sample to be measured; faecal mass need not be calculated (Crouse and Grundy, 1978). Since ÃÆ'Ã… ¸-sitosterol is also administered with the labelled cholesterol it may underestimate actual cholesterol absorption. Plasma cholesterol specific radioactivity following the consumption of a test meal has also been investigated a measure of cholesterol absorption. Lin et al. (2005) measured cholesterol absorption in 11 individuals with Smith-Lemli-Opitz syndrome (SLOS), a cholesterol synthesis disorder, and compared plasma cholesterol apecific activity with cholesterol absorption measured by Method IV. They sampled blood 24, and 48 hours following radioisotope enriched tests meals, and calculated the specific radioactivity of the cholesterol in the plasma (dpm/mg cholesterol). These values correlated significantly with cholesterol absorption calculated by Method IV (r=0.594, p=0.009, and r=0.474, p=0.047 for 24 and 48 hours respectively). While this m ethod cannot calculate cholesterol mass or percent absorption, it could allow for investigation of relative changes in cholesterol absorption within an individual across different conditions. It requires only a single blood sample, no stool collection, and no use of a cholesterol degradation marker, such as ÃŽÂ ²-sitosterol. This method is very similar, to the single isotope tracer method that will be discussed in the stable isotope methods section (Wang et al., 2004). This relationship between plasma radioactivity at 24 hours and cholesterol absorption requires further validation, especially in healthy individuals. The use of radio-isotopes has been invaluable to the investigation of cholesterol absorption, however the advent of stable isotope laboratory techniques, especially developments in isotope ratio mass spectrometry has allowed radio-isotopes such as C14 and H3 tracers to be replaced with safer 13C, 2H and 18O stable isotope labelled tracers (Pouteau et al., 2003a). T his has reduced the difficulty related to containment, handling, disposal and overall safety associated with radioisotopes and allowed for investigation of cholesterol absorption in certain populations (children, pregnant and lactating mothers) which had previously been impossible do to the ethical considerations around radioisotope administration. Stable isotope methods for cholesterol absorption Cholesterol labelled with stable isotopes has been shown to have identical kinetics as radio-labelled cholesterol. This has led to the development of stable isotope techniques to investigate cholesterol absorption. Lutjohann et al. (1993) introduced a stable isotope version of Crouse and Grundy s (1978) Method VIII discussed above. Deuterated cholesterol and sitostanol were used in place of C14 cholesterol and H3 ÃÆ'Ã… ¸-sitosterol, and quantified using gas-liquid chromatography -selected ion monitoring. Cholesterol absorption was calculated as in Method VIII. The stable isotope method was twice compared to Method VIII, in six monkeys, yielding similar results. The stable isotope method produced and absorption range of 49-73% (mean of 60%), with coefficient of variation ranging from 3.9%-15.1% (mean 7.1%). The radioisotope produced a range of 51-69% (mean 61%) with coefficient of variation ranging from 1.9-13.6% (mean 5.1%) (Lutjohann et al., 1993). This stable isotope Method VIII was determined to be as effective as the radio-isotope Method VIII, without the risk of radioactive exposure to subjects and research staff. This method uses sitostanol, rather than ÃŽÂ ²-sitosterol, as a marker for faecal losses of cholesterol. This, however, does not remedy the problem other methods suffer from when using ÃŽÂ ²-sitosterol, as sitostanol is also an inhibitor of cholesterol absorption (Gylling et al., 1997; Miettinen et al., 1995). The plasma isotope ratio method (Method VI) (Samuel et al., 1982; Zilversmit, 1972) was also adapted to stable isotopes. Bosner et al. (1993) used 2H labelled oral and 13C labelled IV cholesterol to calculate the plasma stable isotope ratio and cholesterol absorption percentage. This method uses gas-chromatography à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â‚¬Å" mass spectrometry with select ion monitoring (GC/MS-SIM) or GS/MS- chemical ionization mode (CI) to determine isotopic enrichment. Bosner et al. (1999) further modified the Method VI to a single isot ope dual tracer method, using oral [2H]5 and IV [2H]6 cholesterol. Isotope detection in the plasma cholesterol is done by GC/MS- selected mass monitoring. Jones et al. (2000) were the first to use isotope ratio mass spectrometry to determine isotopic enrichment using the plasma isotope ratio method. Oral 13C and IV 3H cholesterol were administered to 15 hypercholesterolemic men, followed by blood sampling 2-3 days post administration. Free cholesterol from red blood cells was purified by thin layer chromatography and subsequently combusted to yield carbon dioxide and water. The CO2 was then measured for 13C enrichment against the international standard Pee Dee Belemetite (PDB) on an isotope ratio mass spectrometer (IRMS). The water was reduced to hydrogen gas via zinc reduction and 3H enrichment was measured against Standard Mean Ocean Water (SMOW) international standard by IRMS. The ratio of plasma enrichment of 13C to 3H cholesterol on day 3 after tracer administration was used to calculate cholesterol absorption. Recently, continuous flow gas chromatograph pyrolysis IRMS (GC/P/IRMS) systems and 18O or 3H cholesterol with gas chromatograph combustion IRMS (GC/C/IRMS) systems and 13C cholesterol have been used in calculating cholesterol absorption using IRM (Method VI)(Gremaud et al., 2001; Pouteau et al., 2003b). The use of IRMS vs GC/MS-SIM has vastly increased the precision of this method. The two single stable isotope methods for accessing cholesterol absorption were introduced by Ostlund et al. (1999) and Wang et al. (Wang et al., 2004). Ostlund et al. (1999) administered deuterated cholesterol to volunteers and measured the average oral cholesterol tracer in plasma ((mmol deuterated cholesterol/mol natural cholesterol) in blood samples taken 4 and 5 days post tracer administration using GC/MS. Wang et al. (2004) administered 13C cholesterol orally followed by blood sampling at 24, 48, 72 and 96 hours. 13C enrichment in plasma free cholesterol was mea sured using GC/C/IRMS. Average 13C enrichment from 24-96 hours and area under the curve (24-96 hours) of 13C enrichment were compared the cholesterol absorption percentage measured using the plasma dual stable isotope ratio method (Bosner et al., 1993) in 2 studies. The average and area under the curve of 13C enrichment in plasma free cholesterol correlated with cholesterol absorption percentage measured by stable isotope method VI (r values ranging from r=0.81, p=0.0001 to r=0.88, p=0.0001)(Wang et al., 2004). Both of these single isotope methods are used to compare treatment effects, such as pharmaceutical or dietary interventions and their effects relative to control, on cholesterol absorption. Absorption surrogate method The use of serum plant sterol levels to predict cholesterol absorption was first developed by Tilvis and Miettinen (1986). They showed that serum levels of ÃÆ'Ã… ¸-sitosterol and campesterol, when normalized for total serum cholesterol, correlated positively with cholesterol absorption as measured by Method VIII of Crouse and Grundy (1978). This measurement involves lipid extraction from a single blood sample followed by GC or HPLC to quantify serum plant sterol and cholesterol levels. The use of campesterol or ÃÆ'Ã… ¸-sitosterol to cholesterol ratio has since been used numerous times as a measure of cholesterol absorption (Gylling et al., 2007; Hallikainen et al., 2006; Matthan et al., 2009; Nissinen et al., 2008; Simonen et al., 2008). Nissinen et al. (2008) showed that ÃÆ'Ã… ¸-sitosterol to cholesterol ratio correlated better with cholesterol absorption than campesterol to cholesterol ratio, as measured by method VIII, across three diets varying in both cholesterol and fat le vels in 29 healthy male volunteers. It is important that when using serum plant sterol as surrogates for cholesterol absorption it is imperative that factors which are known to change serum plant sterol levels, such as the dietary intake of plant sterols (Chan et al., 2006), should be controlled for so as not to perceive a change in cholesterol absorption which may not exist (Vanstone and Jones, 2004). Serum plant sterol levels can be variable within and across different population (Chan et al., 2006), they can also be severely elevated in certain individuals due to genetic disorders (Berge et al., 2000; Lee et al., 2001). It is important that individuals with these genetic disorders are not included in studies using this method of estimating cholesterol absorption as serum plant sterol levels do not reflect cholesterol absorption in these individuals. Recently it has also been shown that serum plant sterol concentrations do not reflect cholesterol absorption in individuals with Smi th-Lemli-Opitz syndrome (Merkens et al., 2009), therefore the use of serum plant sterols as surrogates for cholesterol absorption should be verified prior to its use in a particular populations. The use of plant sterol surrogates does benefit from relative speed and simplicity compared to other previous discussed methods (Matthan and Lichtenstein, 2004; Pouteau et al., 2003a), it is the only estimate of cholesterol absorption which can be done in large scale studies. Methods to access cholesterol synthesis The primary pharmaceutical intervention used to lower elevated cholesterol levels are statins, which are inhibitors of HMG-CoA reductase, a key enzyme in cholesterol synthesis (Stein, 2002). Cholesterol synthesis contributes more to circulating cholesterol levels than cholesterol absorption (Dietschy, 1984; Pouteau et al., 2003a), and maintains cholesterol levels during fasting, therefore accurate assessment of cholesterol synthesis is essential to the field of cholesterol research. Balance Method Cholesterol synthesis can be estimated when intake of dietary cholesterol and excretion of total cholesterol is known during a metabolic steady state (Grundy and Ahrens, 1969). The criteria of this metabolic steady state are: constant plasma cholesterol and faecal cholesterol excretion levels during a period of constant weight. In this steady state, cholesterol synthesis is the difference between cholesterol excretion (faecal neutral sterols and bile acids) and intake. Dietary cholesterol intake must be accurately measured, and faeces must be collected, for a given period of time. Faecal flow must also me monitored to assure collection of faeces from the appropriate time period. Faecal neutral sterols and bile acids are measured in the faeces, typically by GC-MS, and cholesterol synthesis for a given period of time is calculated (Jones et al., 1998; Kempen et al., 1988). Although this method is the gold standard for calculating cholesterol synthesis, it is vulnerable to errors in t he estimation of both cholesterol intake and excretion which can potentially cause significant error. The balance method does determine the actual mass of cholesterol synthesized during a given period, it requires a metabolic steady state, accurate measurement of cholesterol intake and total faecal collection for the period of interest. Therefore this method is not suited for larger trials. Fractional conversion of squalene Daily cholesterol synthesis rate can be estimated by the fraction of infused radiolabelled melavonic acid converted to cholesterol (Liu et al., 1975; McNamara et al., 1977). [14C] mevalonic acid and [3H] cholesterol are administered intravenously, this infusion of labelled mevalonic acid rapidly labels the plasma squalene pool, reaching a maximum enrichment at ~100 minutes. Cholesterol synthesis is estimated by measuring squalene synthesis. Squalene synthesis is calculated by the percentage of melavonate dose converted to cholesterol, divided by the area under the curve of pasma squalene specific activity. This method assumes that plasma squalene synthesis is equivalent to cholesterol synthesis. The cholesterol synthesis rate estimated using this method has been shown to agree with cholesterol synthesis calculated by the balance method within 8% (Liu et al., 1975). The benefits of this method is it requires only 1 hour of a participants time, and can be repeated every 3 weeks (McNa mara et al., 1977), it does however require the administration of intavenous radioisotopes. Cholesterol synthesis precursors The concentrations of plasma precursors along the synthesis pathway of cholesterol have been used to as an indirect qualitative measure of cholesterol synthesis. Squalene (Miettinen, 1982), mevalonic acid (Parker et al., 1982), lanosterol, desmosterol and lathosterol have all been used a surrogates for cholesterol synthesis (Matthan et al., 2000; Miettinen et al., 1990). These precursors have has been shown to fluctuate with diurnal cholesterol synthesis patterns as well as in conditions in which cholesterol synthesis is elevated or reduced (Miettinen, 1982). These precursors correlate more closely with measured cholesterol synthesis when they are normalized for plasma cholesterol level, then as the absolute amount of precursor, and are normally expressed in mmol/mol cholesterol (Miettinen et al., 1990; Nissinen et al., 2008). When using cholesterol precursors as surrogates for cholesterol synthesis, dietary intakes of each precursor should be controlled for, this is particularly i mportant for squalene, which is abundant in olive oil and is at least partially absorbed into the blood (Ostlund et al., 2002b). The most consistent surrogate for cholesterol synthesis has been lathosterol (Kempen et al., 1988; Nissinen et al., 2008). Since cholesterol synthesis surrogates require only one blood sample they are ideal for estimating cholesterol synthesis in very large studies or epidemiological trials. Mass Isotopomer Distribution Analysis (MIDA) Mass isotopomer distribution analysis (MIDA) is a technique that can be used to measure the synthesis of biological polymers in vivo (Hellerstein and Neese, 1999). The technique uses the relative abundance (pattern or distribution) of polymer species which differ only in mass (mass isotopomers) produced during the administration of stable isotope labelled precursors. The distribution of the polymer species produced is compared to the theoretical distributions predicted by binomial and polynomial expansion. Using these theoretical distributions, parameters such a fractional synthesis rate can be calculated using combinatorial probability model. Since cholesterol is synthesized from subunits of acetyl-Coa, fractional synthesis of cholesterol can be calculated during the infusion of 13C labelled acetate (Neese et al., 1993). This method is very invasive, requiring a 24-hr intravenous infusion and serial blood sampling from a indwelling catheter (Di Buono et al., 2000). The cholesterol in the blood samples is measured by GC-MS to determine the distribution pattern of isotopomers from which the rate of synthesis is obtained. The data analysis relies on more complex mathematical modelling than other methods for estimating cholesterol synthesis. Deuterium Incorporation This method is based on the tritiated water uptake method by Dietchy and Spady (1984) used originally in animals. Deuterium incorporation method uses water as a tracer to determine the synthesis of free cholesterol (FC). The fractional synthesis rate (in pools/day) of free cholesterol is calculated from the rate of incorporation of deuterated water into de novo synthesized plasma or erythrocyte cholesterol. Orally administered deuterated water equilibrates with the bodys water and NADPH. Body water and NADPH account are the precursors for 22 of the 46 hydrogen in synthesized cholesterol (Jones, 1990). Deuterium enrichment of the precursor pool, plasma water, and in erythrocyte or plasma cholesterol are measured by IRMS. Fractional synthesis rate of free cholesterol (FSR-FC) is calculated using the following formula: FSR-FC (pools/day) = ( ÃŽÂ ´ cholesterol à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ °/ ÃŽÂ ´ plasma water à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ° * 0.478) ÃŽÂ ´ refers to the change in deuterium enrichment over 24 hours and 0.478 is the ratio of cholesterol from body water and NADPH to total hydrogen in a cholesterol molecule, or the ratio of hydrogen which could be enriched by oral D2O administration (Jones et al., 1993). From the FSR-FC the ASR -FC (g/day) can be calculated by multiplying the FSR-FC by the M1 pool size (determined by Goodmans equation) and 0.33 the proportion of FC in total cholesterol. The ASR-FC is approximately the daily production of newly synthesized cholesterol. The three main assumptions required for deuterium incorporation are: 1)That the fraction of hydrogen derived from plasma water (22/46, or 0.478) is constant in denovo synthesized cholesterol. 2) That denovo synthesized free cholesterol rapidly exchanges between the site of synthesis and the major free cholesterol (plasma compartment) pool. Within this pool cholesterol migrates rapidly between cellular membranes and lipoproteins as well as between different classes of lipoproteins. 3) Deuterium uptake i nto the free cholesterol of the major (plasma) pool of cholesterol reflects synthesis in this pool and that synthesis of cholesterol in the major pool provides a reasonable measurement of total cholesterol synthesis as most sterol synthesis occurs in the intestines and liver which contribute to the plasma cholesterol pool. It must be acknowledged that the major (plasma) pool of cholesterol is at equilibrium with two other slow turnover pools outside the plasma, and that the slow inter-pool cholesterol exchange would cause insignificant entry of labelled free cholesterol into the central pool within a 24 hour time period (Dietschy and Spady, 1984; Jones, 1990). Although it has been shown that these assumptions are not perfect, the cholesterol synthesis estimates yielded by deuterium incorporation have been sensitive enough to show differences in cholesterol synthesis due to genetic factors, and dietary and pharmaceutical interventions. It has also been shown to correlate well with ch olesterol synthesis measured by the balance method (Jones et al., 1998), MIDA(Di Buono et al., 2000) and cholesterol synthesis surrogate levels (Matthan et al., 2000). Conclusion The methods used to quantify cholesterol absorption and synthesis reviewed in this article have yielded invaluable information, as well as provided effective means of measuring the experimental effects of various interventions, on cholesterol homeostasis. The methods have evolved substantially over the years, from radio-isotopes to stable isotopes, and from highly invasive to less invasive procedures. However, advancement in the quantification of cholesterol homeostasis must still be continued, with a goal of finding more accurate methods to measure cholesterol synthesis and absorption, perhaps simultaneously, something which until now is still unavailable. The advantages and drawbacks, as well as the type of information yielded by each method for measuring cholesterol absorption and synthesis must be weighed carefully when selecting an appropriate method. The cost and available technical expertise and facilities will limit which methods are available to each investigator. However, it is imperative that the assumptions and limitations of each method are checked to insure that its use is valid for each particular experimental question it is used to answer.